The Byzantine Era ended as the Sasarians take over Palestine and Jerusalem from 614 to 628 CE. Important to note is that this is the last pre-Islamic Persian Empire. Under their ruling, the Jews were allowed to resettle in Jerusalem for the first time since the end of the Second Revolt in 135 CE (that ended in their expulsion from the city by Roman Emperor Hadrian). Beginning in 615 CE, are Christian pogroms against the Jews in Jerusalem. Then, in 628 CE, Byzantine Emperor Heraclius retakes Jerusalem from the Sasarians and allows the mass massacres of Jews in Jerusalem.
Following our analysis of the end of Byzantine Jerusalem is a study on the Prophet Muhammad. It is known that he leaves no heir, so caliphs (delegates or representatives) are established to lead the Islamic community. The first three caliphs, Abu Baker (Muhammad's closest friend), Umar (Muhammad's companion), and Uthman, suceeded one after the other without much dispute. The first division of power in Islam is between Ali (Muhammad's son in law) and Mu'awiya (Uthman's cousin). Supporters of Ali wanted a kinship based caliphate, collectively known as the Shi'ites, while supports of Mu'awiya were mostly Arab and collectively known as the Sunnis.
Muslim Caliph Umar (the Second Caliph after Muhammad) takes Jerusalem in 638 CE. In a written agreement with the Christian community, he does not allow Jewish settlement; though, he later allowed Jews to move back into the city. Under Muslim rule, Jerusalem is still referred to as Aelia (from Hadrian). Early Islamic descriptions of the city usually entail "house of the Holy place" or "the Holy," as these inscriptions can be found minted on coins in 832 CE. Also, with the conversion of the city into a Muslim settlement, the Temple Mount was renamed the Haram-al-Sharif, which later became the home of the Dome of the Rock and the Al Aqsa Mosque.
In Islamic traditions, the term qibla refers to the direction of prayer, while mihrab is a niche pointing to the direction of prayer. This is cited in Qur'an 2: 144, where it is said that one must "turn [his/her] face toward the Place of Worship." Initially, this qibla was believed to be Jerusalem (610 - 623 CE), but then was later shifted to the Kaaba in Mecca (around 622 CE).
The Kaaba is a granite cube shaped building in Mecca. It is believed that a black stone in the corner of the building dates back to the times of Adam and Eve. From this, it can be seen that many traditions that were once attributed to Jerusalem and the Temple Mount, started to get transferred to the Kaaba in Mecca, at least under Islamic faith. In fact, for Muslims, the Mecca is the most holy place, followed by the Medina, and finally Jerusalem.
Though the Kaaba is one of the most sacred places for Islamic people, it used to house many Arabian Idols. It was a pagan shrine before Islam, but it is still a very sacred space. It is converted to a sacred space for Muslims when Muhammad throws away the idols and brings about the idea of monotheism (in much the same way as Hezekiah's and Josiah's reforms).
The five pillars of Islam are as follows:
Shahada: "Testimony" or "witness" that there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is is messenger.
Salat: 5 Prayers per day
Zakat: almsgiving to the needy
Sawn: fasting in the month of Ramadan in which the Qu'ran was first revealed
Hajj: making a pilgrimage to the Mecca in one's lifetime
The Umayyad Dynasty in Jerusalem lasted from 638 to 750, though the rulers had their capital in Damascus. During this time, Abd al Malik builds the Dome of the Rock in 691 CE (though it was commissioned in 687 CE). The purpose of the Dome was to divert pilgrimage form Mecca to Jerusalem. Then Al Aqsa Mosque was built on the site of Umar's mosque during Caliph Walid's reign from 705 to 715 CE. Jerusalem during this period was considered to be a very tolerant city of both Christianity and Judaism. Further architectural modifications of the city took the form of Islamic Palaces and Administrative Centers near the Southwest end of the Temple Mount.
Interestingly, the Dome of the Rock, though an Islamic shrine, is actually built with a lot of architectural influence from Christianity, as the builders were prominently Christian. In fact, many architectural aspects of the Dome are comparable to Christian Churches, such as ones in Caesarea, the Holy Sepulcher, and the Kathisma Church. In 1099, the Crusaders converted the Dome to a Church. But, in 1187, Saladin converted the Dome back into a shrine. Inscribed on its walls, read a text claiming their first testimony: that there is no God other than Allah, which conflicts with Christianity and their views of Jesus as God's son.
Traditions often associated with the Dome include: Mt. Moriah, the Rock as the Holy of Holies, i was a stop on Muhammad's Miraj, under it lies the "Well of Souls" or the axis to Hell. Right beside the Dome is the Dome of the Chain, which is a much smaller structure believed to be the place of the Last Judgment.
Finally, we discussed the Al Asqa mosque, and how a prayer here is worth 500 prayers outside of Jerusalem. It is referred to as the "farthest mosque" and it was built above the "Stables of Solomon"
Thursday, February 24, 2011
Tuesday, February 22, 2011
Lecture 14: Byzantine Jerusalem
This is the period where Jerusalem is no longer Jewish, as the state transitions to a nation based on Christianity. Accompanying this transition is the rise of new sites and locations that are deemed more important than the Temple Mount. The Byzantine era lasts from 312 to 637 CE, and as just mentioned, it is marked by the rise of Christianity, where Jerusalem assumes a more spiritual role. Jesus predicts the destruction of the Temple in Mark 13 and Luke 21, thereby making the physical existence of the Temple less important than the personal embodiment of faith.
Events of the Early Church began with Jesus' Ascension from the Mount of Olives sin Acts 1, followed by the Descending of the Holy Spirit in Acts 2 (bringing the idea of God's presence in every believer). Then the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15 debates kosher rules, and whether Christianity should follow Judaism in their sacrificial rituals and whether they need circumcision. Jerusalem is further spiritualized in these contexts, as is quoted in John 4.
There is much scholarly debate over whether the New Testament Apocalypses about Jerusalem--namely the predictions of the Temple's destruction by Jesus--is actually a prediction, or a hindsight that was later attributed to Jesus.
In either case, Jerusalem's sanctity is found in the belief that Jesus died, as buried, and then resurrected in the city, despite the fact that Christianity is constantly spiritualized away from physical entities.
Events of the Byzantine era date back to 285 CE, when Emperor Diocletian spites the administration of the Roman empire between the West and the East. He institutes a tetrarchy between himself, Caesar Maximian, Caesar Constantius, and Caesar Galerius. This causes a struggle for power between the rulers after Constantius' death; the struggle allows Constantine to usurp power, letting him rise as a sole leader.
Constantine rules from 312 5o 337 CE, and he is most known for legalizing Christianity in 313 under the Edict of Milan. He believed that he could unify the kingdom through Christianity, beginning his conquest under the name of Christ. From this, he inadvertently or intentionally politicizes Christianity to an extent. In 324 CE, he holds the Council of Nicaea to establish exactly what it means to be an orthodox Christian. in 330 CE, he establishes his capital in the Bosphorus Straight, and names it after himself, Constantinople. There is current debate over whether Constantine "used" Christianity for political or religious goals.
Meanwhile, Constantine's mother, Helena makes the first Christian Pilgrimage to Jerusalem, dedicates the Church of Nativity in Bethlehem and the Church of the Ascension on the Mount of Olives. She then rededicates the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (Chapel of Helena 330 CE). This location, believed to be the burial grounds of Jesus, assumes a role as the new Axis Mundi, marking the Christian influence in Jerusalem, as opposed to the Temple Mount in the Jewish era.
After Constantine, Julian "the Apostate" undoes many of his predecessors reforms and attempts to rebuild the Temple. He does not succeed, however, and his successor, Theodosius names Christianity as the official state religion. During this time, the Nea (New) Church is built in honor of St. Mary, along with the Church of Holy Zion.
Important to note is that descriptions of the Nea Church closely reflect those of Solomon's Temple: two pillars, made of cedar. Also, following these architectural commemorations is the movement of Bible legends from the Temple Mount to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (i.e., The Binding of Isaac, The tomb as "theophany," and the location of Adam's burial).
Finally, the Madaba Map, a mosaic map of the sixth century depicts the Christian presence in Jerusalem, as the Temple Mount is no longer in the center of Jerusalem; instead, the most important feature according to this map, is the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.
Events of the Early Church began with Jesus' Ascension from the Mount of Olives sin Acts 1, followed by the Descending of the Holy Spirit in Acts 2 (bringing the idea of God's presence in every believer). Then the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15 debates kosher rules, and whether Christianity should follow Judaism in their sacrificial rituals and whether they need circumcision. Jerusalem is further spiritualized in these contexts, as is quoted in John 4.
There is much scholarly debate over whether the New Testament Apocalypses about Jerusalem--namely the predictions of the Temple's destruction by Jesus--is actually a prediction, or a hindsight that was later attributed to Jesus.
In either case, Jerusalem's sanctity is found in the belief that Jesus died, as buried, and then resurrected in the city, despite the fact that Christianity is constantly spiritualized away from physical entities.
Events of the Byzantine era date back to 285 CE, when Emperor Diocletian spites the administration of the Roman empire between the West and the East. He institutes a tetrarchy between himself, Caesar Maximian, Caesar Constantius, and Caesar Galerius. This causes a struggle for power between the rulers after Constantius' death; the struggle allows Constantine to usurp power, letting him rise as a sole leader.
Constantine rules from 312 5o 337 CE, and he is most known for legalizing Christianity in 313 under the Edict of Milan. He believed that he could unify the kingdom through Christianity, beginning his conquest under the name of Christ. From this, he inadvertently or intentionally politicizes Christianity to an extent. In 324 CE, he holds the Council of Nicaea to establish exactly what it means to be an orthodox Christian. in 330 CE, he establishes his capital in the Bosphorus Straight, and names it after himself, Constantinople. There is current debate over whether Constantine "used" Christianity for political or religious goals.
Meanwhile, Constantine's mother, Helena makes the first Christian Pilgrimage to Jerusalem, dedicates the Church of Nativity in Bethlehem and the Church of the Ascension on the Mount of Olives. She then rededicates the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (Chapel of Helena 330 CE). This location, believed to be the burial grounds of Jesus, assumes a role as the new Axis Mundi, marking the Christian influence in Jerusalem, as opposed to the Temple Mount in the Jewish era.
After Constantine, Julian "the Apostate" undoes many of his predecessors reforms and attempts to rebuild the Temple. He does not succeed, however, and his successor, Theodosius names Christianity as the official state religion. During this time, the Nea (New) Church is built in honor of St. Mary, along with the Church of Holy Zion.
Important to note is that descriptions of the Nea Church closely reflect those of Solomon's Temple: two pillars, made of cedar. Also, following these architectural commemorations is the movement of Bible legends from the Temple Mount to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (i.e., The Binding of Isaac, The tomb as "theophany," and the location of Adam's burial).
Finally, the Madaba Map, a mosaic map of the sixth century depicts the Christian presence in Jerusalem, as the Temple Mount is no longer in the center of Jerusalem; instead, the most important feature according to this map, is the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.
Thursday, February 17, 2011
Lecture 13: Jerusalem in Revolt
As discussed in the previous lecture, Roman rule in Jerusalem began in 63 BCE with General Pompey. During this era, there are two notable Jewish revolts. The first of which, known as the "Great Revolt" lasted from 66 to 73 CE. The second revolt, called the "Bar-Kokhba Revolt," lasted form 132 to 135 CE, and was led by a man named Simon Bar-Kokhba.
Sources for the first revolt come from works (like the Antiquities of the Jews) written by a man named Flavius Josephus. Originally a general in Jerusalem, he chooses to change sides, as he writes mostly in a pro-Roman perspective. From his telling, the revolts resulted from zealots, religious infidelity, among other reasons in an effort to take the blame away from Rome. Another source comes from a man named Tacitus who explains the revolts as rising form messianism and from an inept administration. Archaeological sources back some of the claims made by both of these historians.
After Herod's death, his kingdom is divided among 3 sons, whose powers were more limited. The first, Archelaus, was ethnarch of Judea. he was ineffective, recalled to Rome, and sent into exile in 6 CE. The second, Herod Antipas, became tetrarch from 4 BC until his exile in 39 CE. He inherited Perea, Galilee, and the Transjordan area. The final son, Herod Philip, was tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis, which are Northwest of the Sea of Galilee. He ruled form 4 BCE until his death in 34CE. He was able to build a temple to Augustus because the land he ruled over was very far from Jerusalem.
These Herodian rulers, however, were ineffective and therefore, they were replaced by Roman procurators, establishing direct Roman Rule in Israel.
Of these procurators, the most notable was Pontius Pilate, as he presided over the trial of Jesus and ordered his execution. He was governor form 26-36/7 CE, and not only was he ineffective, but he also provoked the Jews, with pagan symbols on his coins. From the time period 6-66 CE, Roman governors were very inexperienced. Coupled with Jewish nationalism and the advent of messianism and apocalyptic mindsets, internal conflicts were on the rise, eventually leading to open revolt in 66 CE.
Marking the first revolt in Jerusalem are coins that mark Jerusalem's independence from Rome, with inscriptions stating, "for the Freedom of Zion." Establishing their own currency was a way to use propaganda to fuel the revolt. However, in 67 CE, Roman General Vespasian is appointed to conquer Galilee, and in the following years, Nero dies, proclaiming Vespasian as Emperor of Rome in 70 CE. Then, Vespasian's son, Titus, takes over in the spring of 70CE. Then on the 9th of Ab, the same day as the destruction of the first Temple, Titus destroys the Second Temple. Then in 73 CE, the Masada holdouts (hiding in Herod's palace at Masada) commit suicide as the Roman troops begin marching up to the mountain.
Meanwhile, the Temple remains in ruins, until Hadrian converts it to a Temple dedicated to Jupiter in 135 CE. With the destruction of the second Temple, the Jews must revisit the cognitive dissonance felt after the destruction of the first Temple. As punishment, Vespasian issued a fiscus iudaicus, a special tax for Jews only. This gives a fiscal incentive to refuse Judaism. However, the destruction of the Temple started a transformation where the religion became more spiritual. Archaeological evidence that proves the account of the first revolt can be found in the Arch of Titus in Rome (where he commemorates his victory over Jerusalem), and in the Judea Capta Coins that were issued after the city's defeat.
Unlike the first revolt, there are not many sources for the second revolt. It was led by a man named Simon Bar-Kokhba, who attempted to embrace the role of an apocalyptic messiah who will deliver his people. In his endeavor to "liberate Jerusalem," he refers to himself as the "prince" (NSY), since he cannot call himself "King" or "Priest" as he is of neither line. Archaeological evidence found for the second revolt includes the Bar-Kokhba Revolt Coins, where it can be seen that he tries to mint coins similar to the ones found in the first revolt. However, as he mostly likely couldn't speak Hebrew fluently, there are many mistakes on these coins, and many of them are "overstrikes" (he took Roman coins and minted over them, so he didn't have to purchase his own silver). Depicted on these coins, was the second Temple; he uses this iconography in order to instigate passion within his followers, referring to the times when Jerusalem was independent.
However, the second revolt ended in bloody massacres, as Hadrian (Emperor of Rome) rebuilds Jerusalem as a Roman city, Aelia Capitolina, with a Temple dedicated to Jupiter. As a final punishment, he bans the Jews from the city. Survivors of this revolt are believed to lead two major sects known today as modern Judaism and Christianity.
It is commonly believed that the destruction of the city and the Temple marked the beginning of synagogues, where worship can occur outside of the Temple. An idea which contrasts completely with Hezekiah and Josiah's religious reforms.
Sources for the first revolt come from works (like the Antiquities of the Jews) written by a man named Flavius Josephus. Originally a general in Jerusalem, he chooses to change sides, as he writes mostly in a pro-Roman perspective. From his telling, the revolts resulted from zealots, religious infidelity, among other reasons in an effort to take the blame away from Rome. Another source comes from a man named Tacitus who explains the revolts as rising form messianism and from an inept administration. Archaeological sources back some of the claims made by both of these historians.
After Herod's death, his kingdom is divided among 3 sons, whose powers were more limited. The first, Archelaus, was ethnarch of Judea. he was ineffective, recalled to Rome, and sent into exile in 6 CE. The second, Herod Antipas, became tetrarch from 4 BC until his exile in 39 CE. He inherited Perea, Galilee, and the Transjordan area. The final son, Herod Philip, was tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis, which are Northwest of the Sea of Galilee. He ruled form 4 BCE until his death in 34CE. He was able to build a temple to Augustus because the land he ruled over was very far from Jerusalem.
These Herodian rulers, however, were ineffective and therefore, they were replaced by Roman procurators, establishing direct Roman Rule in Israel.
Of these procurators, the most notable was Pontius Pilate, as he presided over the trial of Jesus and ordered his execution. He was governor form 26-36/7 CE, and not only was he ineffective, but he also provoked the Jews, with pagan symbols on his coins. From the time period 6-66 CE, Roman governors were very inexperienced. Coupled with Jewish nationalism and the advent of messianism and apocalyptic mindsets, internal conflicts were on the rise, eventually leading to open revolt in 66 CE.
Marking the first revolt in Jerusalem are coins that mark Jerusalem's independence from Rome, with inscriptions stating, "for the Freedom of Zion." Establishing their own currency was a way to use propaganda to fuel the revolt. However, in 67 CE, Roman General Vespasian is appointed to conquer Galilee, and in the following years, Nero dies, proclaiming Vespasian as Emperor of Rome in 70 CE. Then, Vespasian's son, Titus, takes over in the spring of 70CE. Then on the 9th of Ab, the same day as the destruction of the first Temple, Titus destroys the Second Temple. Then in 73 CE, the Masada holdouts (hiding in Herod's palace at Masada) commit suicide as the Roman troops begin marching up to the mountain.
Meanwhile, the Temple remains in ruins, until Hadrian converts it to a Temple dedicated to Jupiter in 135 CE. With the destruction of the second Temple, the Jews must revisit the cognitive dissonance felt after the destruction of the first Temple. As punishment, Vespasian issued a fiscus iudaicus, a special tax for Jews only. This gives a fiscal incentive to refuse Judaism. However, the destruction of the Temple started a transformation where the religion became more spiritual. Archaeological evidence that proves the account of the first revolt can be found in the Arch of Titus in Rome (where he commemorates his victory over Jerusalem), and in the Judea Capta Coins that were issued after the city's defeat.
Unlike the first revolt, there are not many sources for the second revolt. It was led by a man named Simon Bar-Kokhba, who attempted to embrace the role of an apocalyptic messiah who will deliver his people. In his endeavor to "liberate Jerusalem," he refers to himself as the "prince" (NSY), since he cannot call himself "King" or "Priest" as he is of neither line. Archaeological evidence found for the second revolt includes the Bar-Kokhba Revolt Coins, where it can be seen that he tries to mint coins similar to the ones found in the first revolt. However, as he mostly likely couldn't speak Hebrew fluently, there are many mistakes on these coins, and many of them are "overstrikes" (he took Roman coins and minted over them, so he didn't have to purchase his own silver). Depicted on these coins, was the second Temple; he uses this iconography in order to instigate passion within his followers, referring to the times when Jerusalem was independent.
However, the second revolt ended in bloody massacres, as Hadrian (Emperor of Rome) rebuilds Jerusalem as a Roman city, Aelia Capitolina, with a Temple dedicated to Jupiter. As a final punishment, he bans the Jews from the city. Survivors of this revolt are believed to lead two major sects known today as modern Judaism and Christianity.
It is commonly believed that the destruction of the city and the Temple marked the beginning of synagogues, where worship can occur outside of the Temple. An idea which contrasts completely with Hezekiah and Josiah's religious reforms.
Wednesday, February 16, 2011
Lecture 12: Herodian/Roman Jerusalem
Roman conquest and rule begin in Palestine in 63 BCE, marking the end of Hasmonean rule, which subsequently marked the end of Jewish autonomy until the modern era. Pompey besieged Jerusalem and annexed it to Rome during the civil war between brothers Hyrcanus II (Pharisees) and Aristobulus II (Sadducees). Hyrcanus II was installed as "ethnoarch" (not a kind, but a ruler of the people). Then, Idumean Anipater (from Idumea, south of Jerusalem, where people were forcibly "Judaized" by Hasmoneans) was installed as a procurator, while his sons were installed as local rulers (Herod was given Galilee). "The Abomination of Desolation" was believed to have occurred in 63 BCE when Pompey enters the "Holy of Holies," something that only the High Priest may do once a year.
The rise of Herod began after Antipater was murdered in 43 BCE. Then in 40 BCE, Herod helps the Romans expel the Parthians, thus gaining Roman approval and their recognition of him as King of Judea. Then in 39 BCE, Herod takes contorl of Galilee, Samaria, and Idumea. In 37 BCE, he takes over Jerusalem from the Parthians after seige.
Archaeological evidence of Herod's existence can be found in the coins of the time period that have his name inscribed on them. However, none of these coins have his portrait on them (as most Roman coins would have had) because he was sensitive to Jewish customs, as he was "superficially Jewish" since he was forcibly "Judaized" during the Hasmonean era. At the same time, he had pagan symbols on the coins (i.e., a star) to keep Roman approval.
During his entire reign, he tries to stay on the good side of both the Jews and the Romans, but ultimately, the Jewish people did not approve of him as king. Still, he ruled form 37 to 4 BCE. While many regarded him as a dictator, he was portrayed as paranoid and impulsive. Biblical evidence backs this claim in Matthew 2, where King Herod is outraged at the idea that a new Jewish King, named Jesus, would rule. Therefore, in an effort to prevent this from happening, he orders a mass murder of all boys in Bethlehem who were two years and younger.
Though he is infamous for being a dictator, he is also credited for his massive building projects that provided many jobs for the people of Jerusalem. One his most notable project was the expansion of the Temple, creating a Western Wall (that still stands today as the holiest place in Judaism). In models of Herod's Temple, it can be seen that the architecture reflected very much that of Roman buildings at the time. Discovered in excavations around the Temple Mount, was a Herodian Miqvah, or ritual bathing area, that was used for purification before entering the Temple. Also discovered was a side entrance to the Temple Mount, that was built upon a structure called, Robinson's Arch. Furthermore, on the top of the Southwest Corner was a stone that had the inscription: "For the Place of Trumpeting..." According to Josephus, the Priest would go to the highest point (the Southwest Corner of the Temple Mount) and blow the trumpet to mark the beginning and end of Sabbath. This inscription is archaeological evidence supporting Josephus' claim. The Citadel of David (believed to have been built during the Hasmonean Period and fortified by Herod) was also discovered. This fortification was most likely used as a keep during sieges from outside forces, but Herod also probably used it as a fortress when his people revolted.
After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, archaeologists uncovered a site known as the "Burnt House," which shows what common life was like during the Herodian period. Other sites of this period include: the Herodian Palace and Theater, Siloam Pool expansions, drainage systems, Jerusalem Hippodrome, and the Antonia Fortress (where Romans stayed to keep an eye on Temple activities). Around the Temple, there is a fence with an inscription with a warning to all Gentiles that entrance beyond this point would result in death.
Because Herod was sensitive to Jewish customs, he built another theater after Caesar in Caesarea, as homage to the Romans. He also built aquaducts and ports in Caesarea. For his own protection, he also built the Herodion just south of Jerusalem, which had a miqveh and a triclinium that marked the dining area.
Though Herod accommodated the Jews in many ways (respected the Temple and provided work), he was hated by them because he was only "half Jewish" and he was ultimately a puppet king to the Romans.
After discussing Herod's Jerusalem, we close lecture today with the question of whether Jesus existed or not. Although we have no solid archaeological evidence of his existence, is absence of evidence, evidence of absence?
The rise of Herod began after Antipater was murdered in 43 BCE. Then in 40 BCE, Herod helps the Romans expel the Parthians, thus gaining Roman approval and their recognition of him as King of Judea. Then in 39 BCE, Herod takes contorl of Galilee, Samaria, and Idumea. In 37 BCE, he takes over Jerusalem from the Parthians after seige.
Archaeological evidence of Herod's existence can be found in the coins of the time period that have his name inscribed on them. However, none of these coins have his portrait on them (as most Roman coins would have had) because he was sensitive to Jewish customs, as he was "superficially Jewish" since he was forcibly "Judaized" during the Hasmonean era. At the same time, he had pagan symbols on the coins (i.e., a star) to keep Roman approval.
During his entire reign, he tries to stay on the good side of both the Jews and the Romans, but ultimately, the Jewish people did not approve of him as king. Still, he ruled form 37 to 4 BCE. While many regarded him as a dictator, he was portrayed as paranoid and impulsive. Biblical evidence backs this claim in Matthew 2, where King Herod is outraged at the idea that a new Jewish King, named Jesus, would rule. Therefore, in an effort to prevent this from happening, he orders a mass murder of all boys in Bethlehem who were two years and younger.
Though he is infamous for being a dictator, he is also credited for his massive building projects that provided many jobs for the people of Jerusalem. One his most notable project was the expansion of the Temple, creating a Western Wall (that still stands today as the holiest place in Judaism). In models of Herod's Temple, it can be seen that the architecture reflected very much that of Roman buildings at the time. Discovered in excavations around the Temple Mount, was a Herodian Miqvah, or ritual bathing area, that was used for purification before entering the Temple. Also discovered was a side entrance to the Temple Mount, that was built upon a structure called, Robinson's Arch. Furthermore, on the top of the Southwest Corner was a stone that had the inscription: "For the Place of Trumpeting..." According to Josephus, the Priest would go to the highest point (the Southwest Corner of the Temple Mount) and blow the trumpet to mark the beginning and end of Sabbath. This inscription is archaeological evidence supporting Josephus' claim. The Citadel of David (believed to have been built during the Hasmonean Period and fortified by Herod) was also discovered. This fortification was most likely used as a keep during sieges from outside forces, but Herod also probably used it as a fortress when his people revolted.
After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, archaeologists uncovered a site known as the "Burnt House," which shows what common life was like during the Herodian period. Other sites of this period include: the Herodian Palace and Theater, Siloam Pool expansions, drainage systems, Jerusalem Hippodrome, and the Antonia Fortress (where Romans stayed to keep an eye on Temple activities). Around the Temple, there is a fence with an inscription with a warning to all Gentiles that entrance beyond this point would result in death.
Because Herod was sensitive to Jewish customs, he built another theater after Caesar in Caesarea, as homage to the Romans. He also built aquaducts and ports in Caesarea. For his own protection, he also built the Herodion just south of Jerusalem, which had a miqveh and a triclinium that marked the dining area.
Though Herod accommodated the Jews in many ways (respected the Temple and provided work), he was hated by them because he was only "half Jewish" and he was ultimately a puppet king to the Romans.
After discussing Herod's Jerusalem, we close lecture today with the question of whether Jesus existed or not. Although we have no solid archaeological evidence of his existence, is absence of evidence, evidence of absence?
Thursday, February 10, 2011
Lecture 11: Hasmonean Jerusalem
The road to revolt is characterized by conservative Jews resisting Hellenization. The Maccabean Revolt, named after its leader, Judas Maccabaeus, attacked "renegade" Jews and gentile villages in Palestine and Seleucid armies through guerilla warfare. This revolt eventually gained success in 165-164 BCE, which reinstalled Jews in Jerusalem and in control of the Temple. At this time, Hanukkah was established to commemorate the victory and re-claiming of the Temple.
The Maccabean Revolt gives rise to the Hasmonean Dynasty. Archaeological evidence from this point in time takes the form of Jewish coins. These coins are different from Greek coins in that they do not depict any human form as this goes against their religion.
The Hasmonean Rule lasts about 100 years; Jerusalem is autonomic from 165 BCE to about 63 BCE. However, as we will see, this era is the last time the Jews will be in control of their own government until modern times. Under the Hasmonians, Jerusalem expands, and people believe that the "Golden Age" has been restored. The Hasmoneans claim that their leadership will be temporary (as they understand that they are not part of the Davidic line), but their stewardship of the throne lasts far longer than they originally claimed.
Eventually, corruption finds its way back into the political system in Jerusalem, as the Hasmonian rulers who fought so hard to be rid of Hellenization became more Hellenized and secular. They assumed the High Priesthood, along with Kingship, which may have been the reason for the rise of the Qumran Sect who wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls. With their increasing Hellenism, came insensitivity to Jewish religious traditions, execution of political and religious opponents, and employment of mercenaries. Also, religion was used as a tool for nationalistic motives rather than religious ones. Ironically, Hasmonean rulers started to force people into Judaism. Herod the Great's family was believed to be one of the victims of these forced conversions.
The Temple became the center of Jewish identity under the Hasmoneans. Sects began to arise based on their attitudes toward the Temple. The Pharisees were neutral to the Temple, the Sadducees followed the Temple order, and the Qumran and Early Christian Sects were anti-Temple. While Hyrcanus II favors the Pharisees, Aristobus II favors the Sadducees.
However, like most dictatorships, the Hasmonean Rule came to an end with the Roman Conquest in 63 BCE, led by Pompey. Pompey restores Hyrcanus to High Priesthood, but rids his political authority. The entrance of the Romans marks the end of Jewish self-rule until the modern era.
The Maccabean Revolt gives rise to the Hasmonean Dynasty. Archaeological evidence from this point in time takes the form of Jewish coins. These coins are different from Greek coins in that they do not depict any human form as this goes against their religion.
The Hasmonean Rule lasts about 100 years; Jerusalem is autonomic from 165 BCE to about 63 BCE. However, as we will see, this era is the last time the Jews will be in control of their own government until modern times. Under the Hasmonians, Jerusalem expands, and people believe that the "Golden Age" has been restored. The Hasmoneans claim that their leadership will be temporary (as they understand that they are not part of the Davidic line), but their stewardship of the throne lasts far longer than they originally claimed.
Eventually, corruption finds its way back into the political system in Jerusalem, as the Hasmonian rulers who fought so hard to be rid of Hellenization became more Hellenized and secular. They assumed the High Priesthood, along with Kingship, which may have been the reason for the rise of the Qumran Sect who wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls. With their increasing Hellenism, came insensitivity to Jewish religious traditions, execution of political and religious opponents, and employment of mercenaries. Also, religion was used as a tool for nationalistic motives rather than religious ones. Ironically, Hasmonean rulers started to force people into Judaism. Herod the Great's family was believed to be one of the victims of these forced conversions.
The Temple became the center of Jewish identity under the Hasmoneans. Sects began to arise based on their attitudes toward the Temple. The Pharisees were neutral to the Temple, the Sadducees followed the Temple order, and the Qumran and Early Christian Sects were anti-Temple. While Hyrcanus II favors the Pharisees, Aristobus II favors the Sadducees.
However, like most dictatorships, the Hasmonean Rule came to an end with the Roman Conquest in 63 BCE, led by Pompey. Pompey restores Hyrcanus to High Priesthood, but rids his political authority. The entrance of the Romans marks the end of Jewish self-rule until the modern era.
Lecture 10: Hellenistic Jerusalem
The Hellenistic Period in Jerusalem began in 333 BCE with the Conquest of Alexander the Great, and lasted until about 167 BCE. There are very few sources (only the Apocrypha and accounts from Josephus, a Roman Historian) that document this era. During Hellenistic Jerusalem, we have archaeological evidence of Alexander's influence and power as his image is engraved on many coins. His conquest lasted from 336 to 323 BCE, capturing Palestine in 332 BCE. In 333 BCE, Alexander defeats the Persian King Darius at the Battle of Issus. Following this landmark battle, he continues to conquer the entire known world at the time, thus, explaining his prominence and reputation. It is during the Hellenistic period, that the High Priest comes to handle both economic and religious duties.
However, with the death of Alexander the Great, comes a division of his kingdom between the Ptolemies from Egypt and the Seleucids from Syria. The Ptolemies capture Jerusalem in 320 BC and rule until they are taken out by the Seleucids in 201 BCE. Under their leadership, Jerusalem is allowed autonomy, and they are given the chance to choose their own High Priest. However, when Antiochus III defeats Ptolemy V in 198 BCE at the Battle of Paneas, autonomy is lost, as the Seleucids begin to aggressively advocate Hellenism in Jerusalem, often against the will of the people. Under their reign, Jews are forced to speak Greek, for linguistic unity is supposed to provide imperial unity (this concept is somewhat reminiscent of how Sargon caused the shift from Arcadian to Aramaic). The Seleucids were keen on turning Jerusalem into a Greek polis (city), or center of Greek life.
The Greeks regard a polis as the highest and most natural civil institution, that--according to Aristotle--includes food supplies, crafts, skills, military, commerce, religion, and a system of justice.The Hellenization of Jerusalem causes social and economic experimentation in the form of adopting Greek architecture (gyms and theaters), art, coinage, education, entertainment, language, literature, philosophy, recreation, and even religion (this causes the most dispute among conservative Jews).
Archaeological evidence for the Hellenization of Jerusalem can be found in the Kidron Valley Tombs. For instance, the tombs of Benei Hezir, Zechariah, and Absalom are all Greek in style. Also, in this time, Jewish burial inscriptions were written in Greek. Further archaeological evidence can be found in Jewish homes such as the house in Sepphoris, where the centerpiece mosaic depicts the Greek myth of the drinking contest between Herakles and Dionysis (Greek God of Wine). Mosaics in Bet She'an depict the Greek City Goddess, Tyche, while the Beth Alpha Mosaic houses the zodiac in a synagogue.
Hellenism is so deeply rooted in Jerusalem at this point that even the Bible is influenced by Greek culture. Because Greek became the most spoken language of many Jews, the Hebrew Bible is translated into Greek. This translation is called the "Septuagint," where the New Testament derives many of its references. However, it is not a perfect translation of the Hebrew Bible, as it most likely includes the interpretations of the translators.
In any case, during the Seleucid reign, we see a pattern where rulers, such as Antiochus IV, deposing the High Priest at any sign of rebellion (Onias III is replaced by Jason who is in turn, replaced by Menelaus). Forms of aggressive Hellenization take the forms of looting the Temple, and Edicts that outlaw Jewish Religious practices. It it even goes so far as to convert the Temple into a Temple of Zeus.
The reaction to Hellenization varied: some welcomed it, while conservative Jews resisted it. This breeds infighting between Jews, eventually leading to a revolt, as will be discussed in the next lecture.
However, with the death of Alexander the Great, comes a division of his kingdom between the Ptolemies from Egypt and the Seleucids from Syria. The Ptolemies capture Jerusalem in 320 BC and rule until they are taken out by the Seleucids in 201 BCE. Under their leadership, Jerusalem is allowed autonomy, and they are given the chance to choose their own High Priest. However, when Antiochus III defeats Ptolemy V in 198 BCE at the Battle of Paneas, autonomy is lost, as the Seleucids begin to aggressively advocate Hellenism in Jerusalem, often against the will of the people. Under their reign, Jews are forced to speak Greek, for linguistic unity is supposed to provide imperial unity (this concept is somewhat reminiscent of how Sargon caused the shift from Arcadian to Aramaic). The Seleucids were keen on turning Jerusalem into a Greek polis (city), or center of Greek life.
The Greeks regard a polis as the highest and most natural civil institution, that--according to Aristotle--includes food supplies, crafts, skills, military, commerce, religion, and a system of justice.The Hellenization of Jerusalem causes social and economic experimentation in the form of adopting Greek architecture (gyms and theaters), art, coinage, education, entertainment, language, literature, philosophy, recreation, and even religion (this causes the most dispute among conservative Jews).
Archaeological evidence for the Hellenization of Jerusalem can be found in the Kidron Valley Tombs. For instance, the tombs of Benei Hezir, Zechariah, and Absalom are all Greek in style. Also, in this time, Jewish burial inscriptions were written in Greek. Further archaeological evidence can be found in Jewish homes such as the house in Sepphoris, where the centerpiece mosaic depicts the Greek myth of the drinking contest between Herakles and Dionysis (Greek God of Wine). Mosaics in Bet She'an depict the Greek City Goddess, Tyche, while the Beth Alpha Mosaic houses the zodiac in a synagogue.
Hellenism is so deeply rooted in Jerusalem at this point that even the Bible is influenced by Greek culture. Because Greek became the most spoken language of many Jews, the Hebrew Bible is translated into Greek. This translation is called the "Septuagint," where the New Testament derives many of its references. However, it is not a perfect translation of the Hebrew Bible, as it most likely includes the interpretations of the translators.
In any case, during the Seleucid reign, we see a pattern where rulers, such as Antiochus IV, deposing the High Priest at any sign of rebellion (Onias III is replaced by Jason who is in turn, replaced by Menelaus). Forms of aggressive Hellenization take the forms of looting the Temple, and Edicts that outlaw Jewish Religious practices. It it even goes so far as to convert the Temple into a Temple of Zeus.
The reaction to Hellenization varied: some welcomed it, while conservative Jews resisted it. This breeds infighting between Jews, eventually leading to a revolt, as will be discussed in the next lecture.
Tuesday, February 8, 2011
Lecture 9: Persian Jerusalem
The Persian Empire lasts from 539 BCE to 333 BCE. It is within this time period, that the Second Temple is built (539 BCE), until it is again destroyed in 70CE by the Romans. During this time, however, there are no non-Biblical texts dealing directly with Jerusalem. The Biblical Texts, on the other hand, document the events in the following books: Chronicles, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Ezra, Nehemiah, and 2nd Isaiah. The Book of Ezra is actually written in Aramaic, which shows the languages dominance in Judaism.
We begin our analysis of Biblical texts during this period with Ezekiel 1, where he claims that he has a vision of the Lord returning to a mobile state. His vision is reminiscent of the Ark of the Covenant (he describes winged animal that serves as a guardian, along with a box that has "wheels within wheels" for transport). His message, overall, is simply stating that God has not abandoned His people; He has returned to being mobile, and He is not only tied to the Temple. Following this vision is the idea of a more distant God, who does not physically dwell in the Temple, as was commonly believed in pre-exilic times.
The Persian presence in Jerusalem begins with King Cyrus, who (as claimed on Cyrus' Cylinder) announces the return of the Jews to their homelands. He is viewed as a "Liberator," rather than a conqueror (a tactic very different from that of the Assyrians and the Babylonians). His reasons for delivering the Jews, however, is not consistent in all the forms of evidence. In 2 Chronicles 36 and Ezra 1, it is simply stated that Cyrus will build a house in Jerusalem. But, in Isaiah 44, he is depicted as a sort of messiah, an anointed one who is doing the Hebrew God's will without knowing it. This passage can be problematic because Cyrus is a foreign king, and therefore, he's not part of the Davidic line. Furthermore, Cyrus' point of view on the Cylinder seems to claim that Marduk (God of the Babylonians) wanted him to take over Babylon.
Though the reason for Cyrus' deliverance of the Jews is different in these accounts, the result is still the same: the Babylonian Empire was ended and the Jews were free to return to Jerusalem. However, it is believed that the Persian presence at this time may have influenced Judaism as there are many similarities between Judaism and Zoroastrianism (which is the religion of Persians).
The first return occured in the late sixth century BCE during the reign of Cyrus, Cambyses II, and Darius I "the Usurper." During the first return, Zerubbabel, a Davidide, became governor (not king) of Jerusalem, as Joshua became the High Priest (who is now the new center for Jewish practice). The second Temple is built under Darius I's rule.
However, with the rebuilding of the Temple, comes the question of whether Jews need a Temple to prove that they are Jewish. In Haggai 1, it seems that a Temple is needed, but there are many who would have disagreed. Contentions of whether the second Temple should be built or not led to religious discontent.
We begin our analysis of Biblical texts during this period with Ezekiel 1, where he claims that he has a vision of the Lord returning to a mobile state. His vision is reminiscent of the Ark of the Covenant (he describes winged animal that serves as a guardian, along with a box that has "wheels within wheels" for transport). His message, overall, is simply stating that God has not abandoned His people; He has returned to being mobile, and He is not only tied to the Temple. Following this vision is the idea of a more distant God, who does not physically dwell in the Temple, as was commonly believed in pre-exilic times.
The Persian presence in Jerusalem begins with King Cyrus, who (as claimed on Cyrus' Cylinder) announces the return of the Jews to their homelands. He is viewed as a "Liberator," rather than a conqueror (a tactic very different from that of the Assyrians and the Babylonians). His reasons for delivering the Jews, however, is not consistent in all the forms of evidence. In 2 Chronicles 36 and Ezra 1, it is simply stated that Cyrus will build a house in Jerusalem. But, in Isaiah 44, he is depicted as a sort of messiah, an anointed one who is doing the Hebrew God's will without knowing it. This passage can be problematic because Cyrus is a foreign king, and therefore, he's not part of the Davidic line. Furthermore, Cyrus' point of view on the Cylinder seems to claim that Marduk (God of the Babylonians) wanted him to take over Babylon.
Though the reason for Cyrus' deliverance of the Jews is different in these accounts, the result is still the same: the Babylonian Empire was ended and the Jews were free to return to Jerusalem. However, it is believed that the Persian presence at this time may have influenced Judaism as there are many similarities between Judaism and Zoroastrianism (which is the religion of Persians).
The first return occured in the late sixth century BCE during the reign of Cyrus, Cambyses II, and Darius I "the Usurper." During the first return, Zerubbabel, a Davidide, became governor (not king) of Jerusalem, as Joshua became the High Priest (who is now the new center for Jewish practice). The second Temple is built under Darius I's rule.
However, with the rebuilding of the Temple, comes the question of whether Jews need a Temple to prove that they are Jewish. In Haggai 1, it seems that a Temple is needed, but there are many who would have disagreed. Contentions of whether the second Temple should be built or not led to religious discontent.
Lecture 8: Exile and Destruction and Cognitive Dissonance
After Josiah's death, Jerusalem enters a period on the brink of destruction, as Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonians enter the scene. King Nebuchadnezzar exiles Jerusalem three times in history. The first time, he exiles King Jehoiachin and Prophet Ezekiel to Babylonia in 597 BCE. The second time, however, is marked as the most memorable, for this is when he destroys Solomon's Temple in 586 BCE.
Josiah's death is often seen by scholars as a death that may counter deuteromistic claims, for he was considered a "good" king, yet his reign was relatively short. His rule was ended as he was killed by Pharoah Neco at Megiddo in 609 BCE. His death, however, has two accounts: one of which appears in 2 Kings (which just states that he died at the hand of Neco), and the other appears in 2 Chronicles 35 (which states that he was fatally wounded but brought back to Jerusalem, where he dies). It is said in the latter verse that Neco came to Jerusalem with the intent of helping the Assyrians (who were recently beaten by Babylonians), meaning Josiah's opposition could be seen as demonstrating loyalty to the Babylonians. This, under deuteronomistic claims, may be seen as the reason for Josiah's early death, despite the fact that he was viewed as a just king.
Returning to the Babylonian conquest, we examined evidence of the exile of the royal family. There were 290 tablets discovered near Ishtar Gate in 1930, four of which mention the royal family. The Babylonina Tablet documents "allowances" to the royal family, confirming what is said in 2 Kings 25 (which states that Jehoiachin was given allowances during his exile). The second exile is documented in 2 Kings 24-25, where King Zedekiah (who is put in charge by Nebuchadnezzar) rebels. His rebellion angers the Babylonian King, thus leading to the Temple's destruction in 586 BCE.
After the Temple's destruction, it is believed by some scholars that the Book of Kings was rewritten in an effort to justify the promise of the Lord to David in 2 Samuel 7. For instance, there are two endings to the Book of Kings. One, the Josianic Conclusion (which is written before Josiah's death) seems to have a peaceful ending, where there is hope of the continuation of the Davidic line. The other, post-exilic ending (2 Kings 23) seems to tell a different story, where it is said that the Lord is still angry because of Manasseh's disobedience and therefore, resolves to remove Jerusalem.
The post-exilic ending of the Book of Kings demonstrates one way in which people deal with cognitive dissonance, and that is to rationalize or redefine the promise made to David, stating that the promise is conditional--that disobedience leads to punishment and a revoking of the promise. For instance, in Lamentation 1 and Psalm 79 there is the idea that the people of Jerusalem sinned and are therefore, punished. In Psalm 137, there is the hope that God will avenge them and His promise will be kept.
After the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BCE, there is the rise of Name Theology, where the Lord does not physically reside in the Temple; it is merely his name that is worshiped there. Thus, when the Temple falls, it does not mean that the Lord has been defeated or abandoned them, for he does not literally dwell in the Temple (this view of God's presence is very different from the pre-exilic texts, where God is seen as physically living in the Temple).
Josiah's death is often seen by scholars as a death that may counter deuteromistic claims, for he was considered a "good" king, yet his reign was relatively short. His rule was ended as he was killed by Pharoah Neco at Megiddo in 609 BCE. His death, however, has two accounts: one of which appears in 2 Kings (which just states that he died at the hand of Neco), and the other appears in 2 Chronicles 35 (which states that he was fatally wounded but brought back to Jerusalem, where he dies). It is said in the latter verse that Neco came to Jerusalem with the intent of helping the Assyrians (who were recently beaten by Babylonians), meaning Josiah's opposition could be seen as demonstrating loyalty to the Babylonians. This, under deuteronomistic claims, may be seen as the reason for Josiah's early death, despite the fact that he was viewed as a just king.
Returning to the Babylonian conquest, we examined evidence of the exile of the royal family. There were 290 tablets discovered near Ishtar Gate in 1930, four of which mention the royal family. The Babylonina Tablet documents "allowances" to the royal family, confirming what is said in 2 Kings 25 (which states that Jehoiachin was given allowances during his exile). The second exile is documented in 2 Kings 24-25, where King Zedekiah (who is put in charge by Nebuchadnezzar) rebels. His rebellion angers the Babylonian King, thus leading to the Temple's destruction in 586 BCE.
After the Temple's destruction, it is believed by some scholars that the Book of Kings was rewritten in an effort to justify the promise of the Lord to David in 2 Samuel 7. For instance, there are two endings to the Book of Kings. One, the Josianic Conclusion (which is written before Josiah's death) seems to have a peaceful ending, where there is hope of the continuation of the Davidic line. The other, post-exilic ending (2 Kings 23) seems to tell a different story, where it is said that the Lord is still angry because of Manasseh's disobedience and therefore, resolves to remove Jerusalem.
The post-exilic ending of the Book of Kings demonstrates one way in which people deal with cognitive dissonance, and that is to rationalize or redefine the promise made to David, stating that the promise is conditional--that disobedience leads to punishment and a revoking of the promise. For instance, in Lamentation 1 and Psalm 79 there is the idea that the people of Jerusalem sinned and are therefore, punished. In Psalm 137, there is the hope that God will avenge them and His promise will be kept.
After the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BCE, there is the rise of Name Theology, where the Lord does not physically reside in the Temple; it is merely his name that is worshiped there. Thus, when the Temple falls, it does not mean that the Lord has been defeated or abandoned them, for he does not literally dwell in the Temple (this view of God's presence is very different from the pre-exilic texts, where God is seen as physically living in the Temple).
Lecture 7: Josiah's Jerusalem: Centralization of Religion in Jerusalem
We open lecture with Jerusalem's survival of the Assyrian siege in 701 BCE under the reign of Hezekiah. Under his ruling, Jerusalem grows and thus begins the centralization of religion in the city. However, after Hezekiah's death, his successor, Manasseh undoes all the centralization during his predecessor's reign. During this time, Jerusalem becomes an Assyrian vassal state, and there is much political unrest in the city. Conflicts rise to a climax at the assassination of Amon (2 Kings 21), which consequently dedicates the kingdom to Manasseh's son, Josiah. However, at this point, Josiah is only eight years old, and therefore, advisors were most likely the leaders of the nation. Important to note here is that with the installation of Josiah, comes an increasing importance of ruling under a text over ruling under a charismatic leader. In fact, it is believed that the Book of Deuteronomy was written in this time period, as a means to find other ways to build credibility and authority when the king is not a solid leader (as is the case of eight year old Josiah).
As Josiah grows old enough to rule the kingdom, he follows his grandfather's footsteps and begins a similar religious reform. It is said in 2 Kings 22-23, that during the cleaning of the Temple, a scroll was found (some believe this to be the Book of Deuteronomy or the Torah) that contained laws which eventually become the rule of the land.
Though Josiah's reform and centralization of religion in Jerusalem is very similar to Hezekiah's reform, there is one major difference. Hezekiah destroyed idols in other locations knowing that they were dedicated to the Hebrew God, whereas Josiah destroyed idols and shrines, believing that if they were not in Jerusalem, then they were worshipping foreign gods, and therefore, must be eradicated. Thus, he burned down the altars made by Judah and Manasseh, the shrine in Bethel (built by Jeroboam during Israel's secession), and the idols for Baal and Asherah. This reform established Josiah's Book Orthodoxy where one must only worship one orthodox and law, creating a new view of monotheism in Judaism.
During Josiah's reign, archaeological evidence reveals an increasing importance in literacy, as revealed by Lachish Letter 3 (587 BCE), where a soldier is offended for being misrepresented as illiterate. This letter demonstrates the stigma associated with those who are illiterate, thereby furthering the importance of writing and the law of the text.
Writing's importance is further emphasized by archaeological finds such as the Mezad Hashavyahu Ostracon (where a commoner refers to laws told in Exodus 22) and the Torah Amulets at Ketuf Hinnom (where two silver amulet are found that quote one of the oldest blessings in the Bible). Because writing appears in such everyday occurrences, we can see how Judaism is starting to become a text-based religion, as texts last longer than people, elevating its status even above the king.
As Josiah grows old enough to rule the kingdom, he follows his grandfather's footsteps and begins a similar religious reform. It is said in 2 Kings 22-23, that during the cleaning of the Temple, a scroll was found (some believe this to be the Book of Deuteronomy or the Torah) that contained laws which eventually become the rule of the land.
Though Josiah's reform and centralization of religion in Jerusalem is very similar to Hezekiah's reform, there is one major difference. Hezekiah destroyed idols in other locations knowing that they were dedicated to the Hebrew God, whereas Josiah destroyed idols and shrines, believing that if they were not in Jerusalem, then they were worshipping foreign gods, and therefore, must be eradicated. Thus, he burned down the altars made by Judah and Manasseh, the shrine in Bethel (built by Jeroboam during Israel's secession), and the idols for Baal and Asherah. This reform established Josiah's Book Orthodoxy where one must only worship one orthodox and law, creating a new view of monotheism in Judaism.
During Josiah's reign, archaeological evidence reveals an increasing importance in literacy, as revealed by Lachish Letter 3 (587 BCE), where a soldier is offended for being misrepresented as illiterate. This letter demonstrates the stigma associated with those who are illiterate, thereby furthering the importance of writing and the law of the text.
Writing's importance is further emphasized by archaeological finds such as the Mezad Hashavyahu Ostracon (where a commoner refers to laws told in Exodus 22) and the Torah Amulets at Ketuf Hinnom (where two silver amulet are found that quote one of the oldest blessings in the Bible). Because writing appears in such everyday occurrences, we can see how Judaism is starting to become a text-based religion, as texts last longer than people, elevating its status even above the king.
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