Timeline of major events occurring in 21st Century Jerusalem:
May 2000: Israel withdraws from South Lebanon
Sept 2000: Second Intifada
Sept 2001: 9/11
2002: Israel begins construction of the West Bank Barrier (however, the border is based on new boundaries, not the one established in the 1947 UN Partitioning Plan)
2004: Arafat dies
2005: Israel forcibly moves out of Gaza
Jan 2006: Hamas defeats the Fatah (Arafat's former party) in Palestinian Elections
July 2006: Israel-Hizbullah War fought in South Lebanon and North Israel
2007: Palestinian Civil War (Hamas control Gaza, while Fatah controls West Bank)
2009: Operation Cast Lead (Israel response to Hama's attacks)
Mar 2010: Israel announces new housing settlements in East Jerusalem
May 2010: IHH Gaza Flotilla (Humanitarian effort to bring supplies) boarded by Israeli Troops; people revolt, and causes violent outbreak that ends in 9 deaths.
Thursday, March 10, 2011
Lecture 18: 20th Century Jerusalem
20th Century Jerusalem is marked by the British Mandate Period, which lasted from the end of World War I to the end of World War II (1918-1948). Also significant in this era is the propagation of secular Zionism, though the roots of Zionism began in the nineteenth century. In 1840, Yehuda Hai Alchelai started a fund in order to buy land in Palestine; many orthodox Jews, however, rejected Zionism as impious. Then, in 1896, Theodore Herzl calls for the need of a Jewish State. Important to keep in mind are Herzl's secular goals during this process, as he does not consider Jerusalem's sacred history as fundamental for the Jewish State. Therefore, he proposes for a Jewish State, not in the "Holy City," but in Uganda. This notion builds support, as Herzl is regarded as the "Messiah, the Son of David."
With the advent of Secular Zionism, also comes the rise of Antisemitism and Immigration. During the 20th century, there is an increasing rise in European nationalism. While antisemitic behavior and actions increase in Europe, many Jews flee to Palestine, exponentially increasing the population count in Jerusalem.
Resulting from the first world war is the partitioning of the former Ottoman Empire between France and Britain. The Sykes-Picot Agreement in 1916 between these two powers divided the Ottoman lands such that France had control (in either the form of direct rule or spheres of influence) of Turkey, North Iraq, Lebanon, and Syria, while Britain had control of South Iraq, Palestine, and Jordan.
Following the Sykes Picot Agreement, British Prime Minister Lloyd tells Arthur Balfour to write to Lord Rothschild (leader of British Jews) a promise for a Jewish State in Palestine. Known as the Balfour Declaration of 1917, the letter caused much controversy, leading to Arab riots in 1920 and 1921. In response to these violent outbreaks, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill writes the "White Paper of 1922," with a mission to clarify the terms of the Balfour Declaration. The White Paper gave a portion of the land West of the Jordan to Jews, and the land East of the Jordan, renamed Transjordan to Abdullah I.
As violence continues to escalate between the Arabs and the Jews prior to WWII, the UN suggests the Peel Plan, which calls for a "two state solution." Under this plan, the Jewish state would be established in Galilee, Upper Jordan Valley, and Coastal Plain, while the Palestinian state would be in the Central Hills, West Bank, and Negev. Jerusalem would be an "international city." Though suggested in 1937, it was not ratified by the UN until 1947. This compromise was accepted by the Zionists as a bare minimum, but it was completely rejected by the Arabs. Disagreement leads to fighting in Jerusalem.
Violence breaks out in 1948 in the form of a civil war. Often regarded as the Arab-Israeli War, or the War of Independence by Israel, this event marks the end of the British Mandate. As the Israelis launch Operation Pitchfork to capture "Bevingrad" in central Jerusalem, the Jordanian army arrives. The two powers sign an armistice, creating the Green Line between Israel and Jordanian held West Bank. At this point, Israel declared Independence, controlling West Jerusalem.
Arab unrest during this period can be evidenced in the assassination of King Abdullah I in front of the Al Aqsa Mosque in 1951. Two years later, King Hussein declares Jerusalem the second capital of the State of Jordan in 1953.
Once again, violence breaks out over Jerusalem in the Six Day War of 1967. During this time, Israel enters the Old City, and claims that they will never move out of Jerusalem again. Within the next few days, Israeli General, Moshe Dayan gives control of the Temple Mount to the Muslims, and Jews are forbidden to pray or enter the Haram. Though Israel annexes the Old City and East Jerusalem (formerly under Jordanian control), the annexation is not recognized by the UN.
The results of the Six Day War--Israeli occupation of the city--causes the first Intifada (Palestinian uprising). The Oslo Accords are a response to the violence that breaks out in 1988-1992 (following the unilateral declaration of a Palestinian State). In its terms are a calling for a Palestinian Authority that would control Palestinian areas in the occupied territories. Also in the accords are the letters of Mutual Recognition, where the Palestinian Liberation Organization would recognize Israel's right to statehood, while Israel would recognize Arafat as the legitimate chairman of the PLO.
A second intifada was believed to be caused by Ariel Sharom's visit on the Haram in 2000, as the Israelis were not supposed to step foot on the Temple Mount out of respect for the location of the ancient Holy of Holies.
With the advent of Secular Zionism, also comes the rise of Antisemitism and Immigration. During the 20th century, there is an increasing rise in European nationalism. While antisemitic behavior and actions increase in Europe, many Jews flee to Palestine, exponentially increasing the population count in Jerusalem.
Resulting from the first world war is the partitioning of the former Ottoman Empire between France and Britain. The Sykes-Picot Agreement in 1916 between these two powers divided the Ottoman lands such that France had control (in either the form of direct rule or spheres of influence) of Turkey, North Iraq, Lebanon, and Syria, while Britain had control of South Iraq, Palestine, and Jordan.
Following the Sykes Picot Agreement, British Prime Minister Lloyd tells Arthur Balfour to write to Lord Rothschild (leader of British Jews) a promise for a Jewish State in Palestine. Known as the Balfour Declaration of 1917, the letter caused much controversy, leading to Arab riots in 1920 and 1921. In response to these violent outbreaks, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill writes the "White Paper of 1922," with a mission to clarify the terms of the Balfour Declaration. The White Paper gave a portion of the land West of the Jordan to Jews, and the land East of the Jordan, renamed Transjordan to Abdullah I.
As violence continues to escalate between the Arabs and the Jews prior to WWII, the UN suggests the Peel Plan, which calls for a "two state solution." Under this plan, the Jewish state would be established in Galilee, Upper Jordan Valley, and Coastal Plain, while the Palestinian state would be in the Central Hills, West Bank, and Negev. Jerusalem would be an "international city." Though suggested in 1937, it was not ratified by the UN until 1947. This compromise was accepted by the Zionists as a bare minimum, but it was completely rejected by the Arabs. Disagreement leads to fighting in Jerusalem.
Violence breaks out in 1948 in the form of a civil war. Often regarded as the Arab-Israeli War, or the War of Independence by Israel, this event marks the end of the British Mandate. As the Israelis launch Operation Pitchfork to capture "Bevingrad" in central Jerusalem, the Jordanian army arrives. The two powers sign an armistice, creating the Green Line between Israel and Jordanian held West Bank. At this point, Israel declared Independence, controlling West Jerusalem.
Arab unrest during this period can be evidenced in the assassination of King Abdullah I in front of the Al Aqsa Mosque in 1951. Two years later, King Hussein declares Jerusalem the second capital of the State of Jordan in 1953.
Once again, violence breaks out over Jerusalem in the Six Day War of 1967. During this time, Israel enters the Old City, and claims that they will never move out of Jerusalem again. Within the next few days, Israeli General, Moshe Dayan gives control of the Temple Mount to the Muslims, and Jews are forbidden to pray or enter the Haram. Though Israel annexes the Old City and East Jerusalem (formerly under Jordanian control), the annexation is not recognized by the UN.
The results of the Six Day War--Israeli occupation of the city--causes the first Intifada (Palestinian uprising). The Oslo Accords are a response to the violence that breaks out in 1988-1992 (following the unilateral declaration of a Palestinian State). In its terms are a calling for a Palestinian Authority that would control Palestinian areas in the occupied territories. Also in the accords are the letters of Mutual Recognition, where the Palestinian Liberation Organization would recognize Israel's right to statehood, while Israel would recognize Arafat as the legitimate chairman of the PLO.
A second intifada was believed to be caused by Ariel Sharom's visit on the Haram in 2000, as the Israelis were not supposed to step foot on the Temple Mount out of respect for the location of the ancient Holy of Holies.
Saturday, March 5, 2011
Lecture 17: Mamluk and Ottoman Jerusalem
Mamluk Jerusalem begins around 1250 and ends in 1516. It is believed that the Mamluk were a grassroots movement of the people without power. During this time, Jerusalem becomes a religious center, as the Ziyara ("visit") to Jerusalem becomes an important pilgrimage to the city (this is comparable to the Hajj in Islamic faith). Though Jerusalem becomes increasingly spiritual, there is a constant decline in its political and military significance, as it is now city with no defense, for the walls were dismantled in 1219 during the Crusades.
At this point, the city is still Islamic, and we see the building of schools, hospices, and hostels where Crusader structures are used as stone quarries. Many madrasas (schools that preach Islam) are founded during this period.
Then from 1351 to 1353, Jerusalem suffers from the Black Death.
Characteristic of Mamluk architecture is the building of walls with alternating red and white stones. As we can see in the Dome of the Rock, entrances are made monumental, and there is extensive use of the Muqarnas design for domes. This is where square bricks are used to make the round dome shape.
More markers of the city's Islam centered nature include the Al Madrasa al Ashrafiyya and the Ghawanima Minaret. The former is a Qur'aniic school, called the "third jewel of Jerusalem" after the Dome of the Rock and the Al Aqsa Mosque. It was built in 1485, by Sultan al Ashrat, who was known for his many other architectural feats. The latter is located in the Northwest corner of the Haram; built in 1298 by Chief Judge Qadi of Jerusalem, it has foundations of an Umayyad minaret and it uses Crusader columns and capitals.
Charitable foundations in Mamluk Jerusalem include mausoleums, schools, public water fountains, and hospices. Burial near the Haram increased in importance from 13th century and onwareds as traditions grew that linked Jerusalem and especially the Haram as the place of Final Judgment.
During the Mamluk period, development of the Haram involved the addition of minarets, a summer pulpit, and the restoration of the Dome and the Al Aqsa Mosque.
Co-occurring at this time is the growth of the Jewish Quarter. Jerusalem is no longer political, but increasingly spiritual. Rabbi Moses ben Nachman makes aliyah in 1267, as he founds the Ramban Synagogue (Jewish Center). He also develops kabbalah, or Jewish Mysticism, where the Temple symbolized the path to God. Rabbi Moses was believed to be one of the first Zionists, who interpreted everything about Judaism through a mystic sense; he is also believed to have had an aggressive refutation of Christians.
After the Mamluk period, came the Ottomon era which lasted from 1516 to 1918. The Ottomans take Constantinople in 1453. Selim I beats the Mamluks in 1517 at Marj Dabik (N. Syria); he is described as the new possessor of the "first qiblah." Jerusalem peacefully surrenders in 1516. With the establishment of the Ottoman empire comes a strong central government.
Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (1520 - 1566) partakes in many public works for Jerusalem. For instance, he rebuilds the walls of Jerusalem, extensively campaigns for the refurbishment of the Haram and its monuments, and replaces mosaics on the exterior of the Dome with Syrian tiles. His efforts parallel those of Mecca and Medina, as he is working to keep Jerusalem as the third greatest city of Islam. Finally, he founds a Shari'a court (court where the law is based on the Qur'an).
Ottoman architecture is characterized by the Damascus Gate (largest gate in Jerusalem leading to the Muslim Quarter), the Jaffa Gate, and St. Stephen's Gate (named after St. Stephen, who was believed to have been stoned at this location). The Western Wall was given to the Jews by Suleiman as a place of prayer. The Western Wall eventually begins to attract myths (that were originally for the Temple). Important to understand, however, is that the Western Wall refers to the wall of the retaining structure that was built around the Temple; it is not a wall of the Temple itself.
At this point, the city is still Islamic, and we see the building of schools, hospices, and hostels where Crusader structures are used as stone quarries. Many madrasas (schools that preach Islam) are founded during this period.
Then from 1351 to 1353, Jerusalem suffers from the Black Death.
Characteristic of Mamluk architecture is the building of walls with alternating red and white stones. As we can see in the Dome of the Rock, entrances are made monumental, and there is extensive use of the Muqarnas design for domes. This is where square bricks are used to make the round dome shape.
More markers of the city's Islam centered nature include the Al Madrasa al Ashrafiyya and the Ghawanima Minaret. The former is a Qur'aniic school, called the "third jewel of Jerusalem" after the Dome of the Rock and the Al Aqsa Mosque. It was built in 1485, by Sultan al Ashrat, who was known for his many other architectural feats. The latter is located in the Northwest corner of the Haram; built in 1298 by Chief Judge Qadi of Jerusalem, it has foundations of an Umayyad minaret and it uses Crusader columns and capitals.
Charitable foundations in Mamluk Jerusalem include mausoleums, schools, public water fountains, and hospices. Burial near the Haram increased in importance from 13th century and onwareds as traditions grew that linked Jerusalem and especially the Haram as the place of Final Judgment.
During the Mamluk period, development of the Haram involved the addition of minarets, a summer pulpit, and the restoration of the Dome and the Al Aqsa Mosque.
Co-occurring at this time is the growth of the Jewish Quarter. Jerusalem is no longer political, but increasingly spiritual. Rabbi Moses ben Nachman makes aliyah in 1267, as he founds the Ramban Synagogue (Jewish Center). He also develops kabbalah, or Jewish Mysticism, where the Temple symbolized the path to God. Rabbi Moses was believed to be one of the first Zionists, who interpreted everything about Judaism through a mystic sense; he is also believed to have had an aggressive refutation of Christians.
After the Mamluk period, came the Ottomon era which lasted from 1516 to 1918. The Ottomans take Constantinople in 1453. Selim I beats the Mamluks in 1517 at Marj Dabik (N. Syria); he is described as the new possessor of the "first qiblah." Jerusalem peacefully surrenders in 1516. With the establishment of the Ottoman empire comes a strong central government.
Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (1520 - 1566) partakes in many public works for Jerusalem. For instance, he rebuilds the walls of Jerusalem, extensively campaigns for the refurbishment of the Haram and its monuments, and replaces mosaics on the exterior of the Dome with Syrian tiles. His efforts parallel those of Mecca and Medina, as he is working to keep Jerusalem as the third greatest city of Islam. Finally, he founds a Shari'a court (court where the law is based on the Qur'an).
Ottoman architecture is characterized by the Damascus Gate (largest gate in Jerusalem leading to the Muslim Quarter), the Jaffa Gate, and St. Stephen's Gate (named after St. Stephen, who was believed to have been stoned at this location). The Western Wall was given to the Jews by Suleiman as a place of prayer. The Western Wall eventually begins to attract myths (that were originally for the Temple). Important to understand, however, is that the Western Wall refers to the wall of the retaining structure that was built around the Temple; it is not a wall of the Temple itself.
Lecture 16: Crusader Jerusalem
The Crusader period last from 1099 to 1291, beginning with the capture of Jerusalem by Godfrey de Bouillon. The crusades can be defined as a Holy War--a battle between Roman Catholic forces against Muslims and other political enemies of the pope. Crusaders took vows and were granted penance for their past sins (these grants were known as "indulgences"). It is generally understood that the crusades were an attempt to recapture Jerusalem from Islam, as they were launched in response to the Westward expansion of Muslim Seljuk Turks in Anatolia (Turkey).
There is much dispute over what caused the Crusades. Politically, the crusades can be seen as a reaction to the expansion of Islam. Or, it can be seen as a call for justice, as Islamic slave trade begins to rise in Southern Europe. Some scholars do not agree with this explanation, for they believe that there are religious reasons for the crusades: they hold the conviction that the conquest of Jerusalem stems as a late reaction to the persecution of the Christians in Jerusalem.From this perspective, Caliph Al-Hakim's destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in 1009 can be seen as a major catalyst in the crusades. Finally, there are many scholars who argue that there is a socioeconomic reasoning behind the crusades, known as the phenomenon of the second and third son. Because, in this time period, the first son received all of the inheritance, the second and third sons may have started the crusade in order to make a name for themselves. However, there is much skepticism regarding this final reason.
Important to note is Pope Urban II's speech, which is believed to have started the first Crusade, which lasted from 1097 to 1099. He uses language such as "vile race" to incite anger, and he promises redemption for those who die in the name of the Lord. The first crusade ends in 1099 with the capture of Jerusalem by Godfrey de Bouillon. Then, his brother, Balwin, becomes the "King of Jerusalem" in 1100.
Muslim unrest after the first crusade ends in the calling of a second crusade, preached by St. Bernard at Vezelay in 1146. St. Bernard describes the Christian soldiers of the second crusade (which mostly composed of French and German Crusaders) as not only righteous in their demeanor, but strong in their military might.
Then, on July 4, 1187, Salah ad-Din (Saladin) routs the Crusaders at Horns of Hattin (Galilee). But, in his siege of Jerusalem, he does not commit mass murder, which is why he becomes a sign of chivalry even in many Christian texts.
Architectural reforms mark the Christian influence during this time period. For instance, the crusaders modify existing Islamic monuments, converting the Dome of the Rock to the Templum Domini and the Al Aqsa Mosque to the Templum Solomonis. Also occurring during this time period is the rebuilding of Byzantine Churches, such as the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, the Church of Ascension (on the summit of the Mount of Olives), the Church of St. Mary (near Gethsemane), and the Church of St. Lazarus (also on the Mount of Olives). From these architectural feats, it is apparent that the Crusaders were expanding Zion from the East Hill (where it was during Judaism and Islam), to the West Hill. More evidence of this fact can be found in the establishment of the Armeninan Quarter in the Southwest region of Jerusalem.
During the Crusades, Jerusalem was divided into four quarters. The Patriarch's Quarter (Northwest) housed the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, the Citadel/Tower of David, and the Muristan (this is where the Hospitallers, French Crusaders, were located). The Templars Quarter, located in the Southeast, was home to the Templum Domini, Templum Solomonis, and Solomon's Stables (this is where the Knights Templar, founded in 1118, were based). The Syrian Quarter, in the Northeast, was established for Christians from Syria after the expulsion of the Jews. And Finally, the Armenian Quarter was located in the Southwest. Note, with the exception of the Armenian Quarter, that the four quarters established at this point are different from modern Jerusalem's four quarters.
A lot of our information for this period comes from Illuminated Manuscripts, such as the Hague Map of Jerusalem (created in 1170). Maps like this one serve as a major source for understanding the city.
Among the Order of the Knights Templar (in Templar's Quarter) and the Hospitallers (in the Patriarch's Quarter), were many other orders, such as the Teutonic Knights (German Hospitallers) from 1128 in the Syrian Quarter and the Order of St. Lazarus in 1120s.
Further modifications of the Haram al Sharif during the Crusader period involve the conversion of the Dome of Ascension (believed to be the place of the ascension of Mohammed) to a bapistry.
A turn in the Crusader period comes in 1187, with the rise of Saladin, who establishes Ayyubid Jerusalem. During his reign, the Haram al Sharif is reconverted back to a Muslim shrine, the Church of the Holy Sepulcher is given to the Greek Orthodox, and Jews are allowed back into the city (Jews from Ashkelon settle in Maghribi's Quarter, which eventually becomes the Jewish Quarter in 1190). However, after Saladin's death, his successors struggle for power, leading to more conflict between the Ayyubids and Crusaders. Rising enmity leads to a third Crusade in 1189-1192, a fourth one in 1199-1204 (led by Innocent III), a fifth one in 1217 - 1221 (in 1219, the walls of Jerusalem are dismantled, people flee for lack of defense, and the population of Jerusalem goes down significantly), and a sixth one in 1228 - 1229 (led by Frederick II, but not blessed by the Pope). After the sixth crusade, the Crusaders regain control of Jerusalem when Al Kamid cedes Jerusalem for ten years in a treaty. Then in 1291, Akko, the last Crusader Outpost falls, marking the end of Crusader Jerusalem.
Thursday, February 24, 2011
Lecture 15: Islamic Jerusalem
The Byzantine Era ended as the Sasarians take over Palestine and Jerusalem from 614 to 628 CE. Important to note is that this is the last pre-Islamic Persian Empire. Under their ruling, the Jews were allowed to resettle in Jerusalem for the first time since the end of the Second Revolt in 135 CE (that ended in their expulsion from the city by Roman Emperor Hadrian). Beginning in 615 CE, are Christian pogroms against the Jews in Jerusalem. Then, in 628 CE, Byzantine Emperor Heraclius retakes Jerusalem from the Sasarians and allows the mass massacres of Jews in Jerusalem.
Following our analysis of the end of Byzantine Jerusalem is a study on the Prophet Muhammad. It is known that he leaves no heir, so caliphs (delegates or representatives) are established to lead the Islamic community. The first three caliphs, Abu Baker (Muhammad's closest friend), Umar (Muhammad's companion), and Uthman, suceeded one after the other without much dispute. The first division of power in Islam is between Ali (Muhammad's son in law) and Mu'awiya (Uthman's cousin). Supporters of Ali wanted a kinship based caliphate, collectively known as the Shi'ites, while supports of Mu'awiya were mostly Arab and collectively known as the Sunnis.
Muslim Caliph Umar (the Second Caliph after Muhammad) takes Jerusalem in 638 CE. In a written agreement with the Christian community, he does not allow Jewish settlement; though, he later allowed Jews to move back into the city. Under Muslim rule, Jerusalem is still referred to as Aelia (from Hadrian). Early Islamic descriptions of the city usually entail "house of the Holy place" or "the Holy," as these inscriptions can be found minted on coins in 832 CE. Also, with the conversion of the city into a Muslim settlement, the Temple Mount was renamed the Haram-al-Sharif, which later became the home of the Dome of the Rock and the Al Aqsa Mosque.
In Islamic traditions, the term qibla refers to the direction of prayer, while mihrab is a niche pointing to the direction of prayer. This is cited in Qur'an 2: 144, where it is said that one must "turn [his/her] face toward the Place of Worship." Initially, this qibla was believed to be Jerusalem (610 - 623 CE), but then was later shifted to the Kaaba in Mecca (around 622 CE).
The Kaaba is a granite cube shaped building in Mecca. It is believed that a black stone in the corner of the building dates back to the times of Adam and Eve. From this, it can be seen that many traditions that were once attributed to Jerusalem and the Temple Mount, started to get transferred to the Kaaba in Mecca, at least under Islamic faith. In fact, for Muslims, the Mecca is the most holy place, followed by the Medina, and finally Jerusalem.
Though the Kaaba is one of the most sacred places for Islamic people, it used to house many Arabian Idols. It was a pagan shrine before Islam, but it is still a very sacred space. It is converted to a sacred space for Muslims when Muhammad throws away the idols and brings about the idea of monotheism (in much the same way as Hezekiah's and Josiah's reforms).
The five pillars of Islam are as follows:
Shahada: "Testimony" or "witness" that there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is is messenger.
Salat: 5 Prayers per day
Zakat: almsgiving to the needy
Sawn: fasting in the month of Ramadan in which the Qu'ran was first revealed
Hajj: making a pilgrimage to the Mecca in one's lifetime
The Umayyad Dynasty in Jerusalem lasted from 638 to 750, though the rulers had their capital in Damascus. During this time, Abd al Malik builds the Dome of the Rock in 691 CE (though it was commissioned in 687 CE). The purpose of the Dome was to divert pilgrimage form Mecca to Jerusalem. Then Al Aqsa Mosque was built on the site of Umar's mosque during Caliph Walid's reign from 705 to 715 CE. Jerusalem during this period was considered to be a very tolerant city of both Christianity and Judaism. Further architectural modifications of the city took the form of Islamic Palaces and Administrative Centers near the Southwest end of the Temple Mount.
Interestingly, the Dome of the Rock, though an Islamic shrine, is actually built with a lot of architectural influence from Christianity, as the builders were prominently Christian. In fact, many architectural aspects of the Dome are comparable to Christian Churches, such as ones in Caesarea, the Holy Sepulcher, and the Kathisma Church. In 1099, the Crusaders converted the Dome to a Church. But, in 1187, Saladin converted the Dome back into a shrine. Inscribed on its walls, read a text claiming their first testimony: that there is no God other than Allah, which conflicts with Christianity and their views of Jesus as God's son.
Traditions often associated with the Dome include: Mt. Moriah, the Rock as the Holy of Holies, i was a stop on Muhammad's Miraj, under it lies the "Well of Souls" or the axis to Hell. Right beside the Dome is the Dome of the Chain, which is a much smaller structure believed to be the place of the Last Judgment.
Finally, we discussed the Al Asqa mosque, and how a prayer here is worth 500 prayers outside of Jerusalem. It is referred to as the "farthest mosque" and it was built above the "Stables of Solomon"
Following our analysis of the end of Byzantine Jerusalem is a study on the Prophet Muhammad. It is known that he leaves no heir, so caliphs (delegates or representatives) are established to lead the Islamic community. The first three caliphs, Abu Baker (Muhammad's closest friend), Umar (Muhammad's companion), and Uthman, suceeded one after the other without much dispute. The first division of power in Islam is between Ali (Muhammad's son in law) and Mu'awiya (Uthman's cousin). Supporters of Ali wanted a kinship based caliphate, collectively known as the Shi'ites, while supports of Mu'awiya were mostly Arab and collectively known as the Sunnis.
Muslim Caliph Umar (the Second Caliph after Muhammad) takes Jerusalem in 638 CE. In a written agreement with the Christian community, he does not allow Jewish settlement; though, he later allowed Jews to move back into the city. Under Muslim rule, Jerusalem is still referred to as Aelia (from Hadrian). Early Islamic descriptions of the city usually entail "house of the Holy place" or "the Holy," as these inscriptions can be found minted on coins in 832 CE. Also, with the conversion of the city into a Muslim settlement, the Temple Mount was renamed the Haram-al-Sharif, which later became the home of the Dome of the Rock and the Al Aqsa Mosque.
In Islamic traditions, the term qibla refers to the direction of prayer, while mihrab is a niche pointing to the direction of prayer. This is cited in Qur'an 2: 144, where it is said that one must "turn [his/her] face toward the Place of Worship." Initially, this qibla was believed to be Jerusalem (610 - 623 CE), but then was later shifted to the Kaaba in Mecca (around 622 CE).
The Kaaba is a granite cube shaped building in Mecca. It is believed that a black stone in the corner of the building dates back to the times of Adam and Eve. From this, it can be seen that many traditions that were once attributed to Jerusalem and the Temple Mount, started to get transferred to the Kaaba in Mecca, at least under Islamic faith. In fact, for Muslims, the Mecca is the most holy place, followed by the Medina, and finally Jerusalem.
Though the Kaaba is one of the most sacred places for Islamic people, it used to house many Arabian Idols. It was a pagan shrine before Islam, but it is still a very sacred space. It is converted to a sacred space for Muslims when Muhammad throws away the idols and brings about the idea of monotheism (in much the same way as Hezekiah's and Josiah's reforms).
The five pillars of Islam are as follows:
Shahada: "Testimony" or "witness" that there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is is messenger.
Salat: 5 Prayers per day
Zakat: almsgiving to the needy
Sawn: fasting in the month of Ramadan in which the Qu'ran was first revealed
Hajj: making a pilgrimage to the Mecca in one's lifetime
The Umayyad Dynasty in Jerusalem lasted from 638 to 750, though the rulers had their capital in Damascus. During this time, Abd al Malik builds the Dome of the Rock in 691 CE (though it was commissioned in 687 CE). The purpose of the Dome was to divert pilgrimage form Mecca to Jerusalem. Then Al Aqsa Mosque was built on the site of Umar's mosque during Caliph Walid's reign from 705 to 715 CE. Jerusalem during this period was considered to be a very tolerant city of both Christianity and Judaism. Further architectural modifications of the city took the form of Islamic Palaces and Administrative Centers near the Southwest end of the Temple Mount.
Interestingly, the Dome of the Rock, though an Islamic shrine, is actually built with a lot of architectural influence from Christianity, as the builders were prominently Christian. In fact, many architectural aspects of the Dome are comparable to Christian Churches, such as ones in Caesarea, the Holy Sepulcher, and the Kathisma Church. In 1099, the Crusaders converted the Dome to a Church. But, in 1187, Saladin converted the Dome back into a shrine. Inscribed on its walls, read a text claiming their first testimony: that there is no God other than Allah, which conflicts with Christianity and their views of Jesus as God's son.
Traditions often associated with the Dome include: Mt. Moriah, the Rock as the Holy of Holies, i was a stop on Muhammad's Miraj, under it lies the "Well of Souls" or the axis to Hell. Right beside the Dome is the Dome of the Chain, which is a much smaller structure believed to be the place of the Last Judgment.
Finally, we discussed the Al Asqa mosque, and how a prayer here is worth 500 prayers outside of Jerusalem. It is referred to as the "farthest mosque" and it was built above the "Stables of Solomon"
Tuesday, February 22, 2011
Lecture 14: Byzantine Jerusalem
This is the period where Jerusalem is no longer Jewish, as the state transitions to a nation based on Christianity. Accompanying this transition is the rise of new sites and locations that are deemed more important than the Temple Mount. The Byzantine era lasts from 312 to 637 CE, and as just mentioned, it is marked by the rise of Christianity, where Jerusalem assumes a more spiritual role. Jesus predicts the destruction of the Temple in Mark 13 and Luke 21, thereby making the physical existence of the Temple less important than the personal embodiment of faith.
Events of the Early Church began with Jesus' Ascension from the Mount of Olives sin Acts 1, followed by the Descending of the Holy Spirit in Acts 2 (bringing the idea of God's presence in every believer). Then the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15 debates kosher rules, and whether Christianity should follow Judaism in their sacrificial rituals and whether they need circumcision. Jerusalem is further spiritualized in these contexts, as is quoted in John 4.
There is much scholarly debate over whether the New Testament Apocalypses about Jerusalem--namely the predictions of the Temple's destruction by Jesus--is actually a prediction, or a hindsight that was later attributed to Jesus.
In either case, Jerusalem's sanctity is found in the belief that Jesus died, as buried, and then resurrected in the city, despite the fact that Christianity is constantly spiritualized away from physical entities.
Events of the Byzantine era date back to 285 CE, when Emperor Diocletian spites the administration of the Roman empire between the West and the East. He institutes a tetrarchy between himself, Caesar Maximian, Caesar Constantius, and Caesar Galerius. This causes a struggle for power between the rulers after Constantius' death; the struggle allows Constantine to usurp power, letting him rise as a sole leader.
Constantine rules from 312 5o 337 CE, and he is most known for legalizing Christianity in 313 under the Edict of Milan. He believed that he could unify the kingdom through Christianity, beginning his conquest under the name of Christ. From this, he inadvertently or intentionally politicizes Christianity to an extent. In 324 CE, he holds the Council of Nicaea to establish exactly what it means to be an orthodox Christian. in 330 CE, he establishes his capital in the Bosphorus Straight, and names it after himself, Constantinople. There is current debate over whether Constantine "used" Christianity for political or religious goals.
Meanwhile, Constantine's mother, Helena makes the first Christian Pilgrimage to Jerusalem, dedicates the Church of Nativity in Bethlehem and the Church of the Ascension on the Mount of Olives. She then rededicates the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (Chapel of Helena 330 CE). This location, believed to be the burial grounds of Jesus, assumes a role as the new Axis Mundi, marking the Christian influence in Jerusalem, as opposed to the Temple Mount in the Jewish era.
After Constantine, Julian "the Apostate" undoes many of his predecessors reforms and attempts to rebuild the Temple. He does not succeed, however, and his successor, Theodosius names Christianity as the official state religion. During this time, the Nea (New) Church is built in honor of St. Mary, along with the Church of Holy Zion.
Important to note is that descriptions of the Nea Church closely reflect those of Solomon's Temple: two pillars, made of cedar. Also, following these architectural commemorations is the movement of Bible legends from the Temple Mount to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (i.e., The Binding of Isaac, The tomb as "theophany," and the location of Adam's burial).
Finally, the Madaba Map, a mosaic map of the sixth century depicts the Christian presence in Jerusalem, as the Temple Mount is no longer in the center of Jerusalem; instead, the most important feature according to this map, is the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.
Events of the Early Church began with Jesus' Ascension from the Mount of Olives sin Acts 1, followed by the Descending of the Holy Spirit in Acts 2 (bringing the idea of God's presence in every believer). Then the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15 debates kosher rules, and whether Christianity should follow Judaism in their sacrificial rituals and whether they need circumcision. Jerusalem is further spiritualized in these contexts, as is quoted in John 4.
There is much scholarly debate over whether the New Testament Apocalypses about Jerusalem--namely the predictions of the Temple's destruction by Jesus--is actually a prediction, or a hindsight that was later attributed to Jesus.
In either case, Jerusalem's sanctity is found in the belief that Jesus died, as buried, and then resurrected in the city, despite the fact that Christianity is constantly spiritualized away from physical entities.
Events of the Byzantine era date back to 285 CE, when Emperor Diocletian spites the administration of the Roman empire between the West and the East. He institutes a tetrarchy between himself, Caesar Maximian, Caesar Constantius, and Caesar Galerius. This causes a struggle for power between the rulers after Constantius' death; the struggle allows Constantine to usurp power, letting him rise as a sole leader.
Constantine rules from 312 5o 337 CE, and he is most known for legalizing Christianity in 313 under the Edict of Milan. He believed that he could unify the kingdom through Christianity, beginning his conquest under the name of Christ. From this, he inadvertently or intentionally politicizes Christianity to an extent. In 324 CE, he holds the Council of Nicaea to establish exactly what it means to be an orthodox Christian. in 330 CE, he establishes his capital in the Bosphorus Straight, and names it after himself, Constantinople. There is current debate over whether Constantine "used" Christianity for political or religious goals.
Meanwhile, Constantine's mother, Helena makes the first Christian Pilgrimage to Jerusalem, dedicates the Church of Nativity in Bethlehem and the Church of the Ascension on the Mount of Olives. She then rededicates the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (Chapel of Helena 330 CE). This location, believed to be the burial grounds of Jesus, assumes a role as the new Axis Mundi, marking the Christian influence in Jerusalem, as opposed to the Temple Mount in the Jewish era.
After Constantine, Julian "the Apostate" undoes many of his predecessors reforms and attempts to rebuild the Temple. He does not succeed, however, and his successor, Theodosius names Christianity as the official state religion. During this time, the Nea (New) Church is built in honor of St. Mary, along with the Church of Holy Zion.
Important to note is that descriptions of the Nea Church closely reflect those of Solomon's Temple: two pillars, made of cedar. Also, following these architectural commemorations is the movement of Bible legends from the Temple Mount to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (i.e., The Binding of Isaac, The tomb as "theophany," and the location of Adam's burial).
Finally, the Madaba Map, a mosaic map of the sixth century depicts the Christian presence in Jerusalem, as the Temple Mount is no longer in the center of Jerusalem; instead, the most important feature according to this map, is the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.
Thursday, February 17, 2011
Lecture 13: Jerusalem in Revolt
As discussed in the previous lecture, Roman rule in Jerusalem began in 63 BCE with General Pompey. During this era, there are two notable Jewish revolts. The first of which, known as the "Great Revolt" lasted from 66 to 73 CE. The second revolt, called the "Bar-Kokhba Revolt," lasted form 132 to 135 CE, and was led by a man named Simon Bar-Kokhba.
Sources for the first revolt come from works (like the Antiquities of the Jews) written by a man named Flavius Josephus. Originally a general in Jerusalem, he chooses to change sides, as he writes mostly in a pro-Roman perspective. From his telling, the revolts resulted from zealots, religious infidelity, among other reasons in an effort to take the blame away from Rome. Another source comes from a man named Tacitus who explains the revolts as rising form messianism and from an inept administration. Archaeological sources back some of the claims made by both of these historians.
After Herod's death, his kingdom is divided among 3 sons, whose powers were more limited. The first, Archelaus, was ethnarch of Judea. he was ineffective, recalled to Rome, and sent into exile in 6 CE. The second, Herod Antipas, became tetrarch from 4 BC until his exile in 39 CE. He inherited Perea, Galilee, and the Transjordan area. The final son, Herod Philip, was tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis, which are Northwest of the Sea of Galilee. He ruled form 4 BCE until his death in 34CE. He was able to build a temple to Augustus because the land he ruled over was very far from Jerusalem.
These Herodian rulers, however, were ineffective and therefore, they were replaced by Roman procurators, establishing direct Roman Rule in Israel.
Of these procurators, the most notable was Pontius Pilate, as he presided over the trial of Jesus and ordered his execution. He was governor form 26-36/7 CE, and not only was he ineffective, but he also provoked the Jews, with pagan symbols on his coins. From the time period 6-66 CE, Roman governors were very inexperienced. Coupled with Jewish nationalism and the advent of messianism and apocalyptic mindsets, internal conflicts were on the rise, eventually leading to open revolt in 66 CE.
Marking the first revolt in Jerusalem are coins that mark Jerusalem's independence from Rome, with inscriptions stating, "for the Freedom of Zion." Establishing their own currency was a way to use propaganda to fuel the revolt. However, in 67 CE, Roman General Vespasian is appointed to conquer Galilee, and in the following years, Nero dies, proclaiming Vespasian as Emperor of Rome in 70 CE. Then, Vespasian's son, Titus, takes over in the spring of 70CE. Then on the 9th of Ab, the same day as the destruction of the first Temple, Titus destroys the Second Temple. Then in 73 CE, the Masada holdouts (hiding in Herod's palace at Masada) commit suicide as the Roman troops begin marching up to the mountain.
Meanwhile, the Temple remains in ruins, until Hadrian converts it to a Temple dedicated to Jupiter in 135 CE. With the destruction of the second Temple, the Jews must revisit the cognitive dissonance felt after the destruction of the first Temple. As punishment, Vespasian issued a fiscus iudaicus, a special tax for Jews only. This gives a fiscal incentive to refuse Judaism. However, the destruction of the Temple started a transformation where the religion became more spiritual. Archaeological evidence that proves the account of the first revolt can be found in the Arch of Titus in Rome (where he commemorates his victory over Jerusalem), and in the Judea Capta Coins that were issued after the city's defeat.
Unlike the first revolt, there are not many sources for the second revolt. It was led by a man named Simon Bar-Kokhba, who attempted to embrace the role of an apocalyptic messiah who will deliver his people. In his endeavor to "liberate Jerusalem," he refers to himself as the "prince" (NSY), since he cannot call himself "King" or "Priest" as he is of neither line. Archaeological evidence found for the second revolt includes the Bar-Kokhba Revolt Coins, where it can be seen that he tries to mint coins similar to the ones found in the first revolt. However, as he mostly likely couldn't speak Hebrew fluently, there are many mistakes on these coins, and many of them are "overstrikes" (he took Roman coins and minted over them, so he didn't have to purchase his own silver). Depicted on these coins, was the second Temple; he uses this iconography in order to instigate passion within his followers, referring to the times when Jerusalem was independent.
However, the second revolt ended in bloody massacres, as Hadrian (Emperor of Rome) rebuilds Jerusalem as a Roman city, Aelia Capitolina, with a Temple dedicated to Jupiter. As a final punishment, he bans the Jews from the city. Survivors of this revolt are believed to lead two major sects known today as modern Judaism and Christianity.
It is commonly believed that the destruction of the city and the Temple marked the beginning of synagogues, where worship can occur outside of the Temple. An idea which contrasts completely with Hezekiah and Josiah's religious reforms.
Sources for the first revolt come from works (like the Antiquities of the Jews) written by a man named Flavius Josephus. Originally a general in Jerusalem, he chooses to change sides, as he writes mostly in a pro-Roman perspective. From his telling, the revolts resulted from zealots, religious infidelity, among other reasons in an effort to take the blame away from Rome. Another source comes from a man named Tacitus who explains the revolts as rising form messianism and from an inept administration. Archaeological sources back some of the claims made by both of these historians.
After Herod's death, his kingdom is divided among 3 sons, whose powers were more limited. The first, Archelaus, was ethnarch of Judea. he was ineffective, recalled to Rome, and sent into exile in 6 CE. The second, Herod Antipas, became tetrarch from 4 BC until his exile in 39 CE. He inherited Perea, Galilee, and the Transjordan area. The final son, Herod Philip, was tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis, which are Northwest of the Sea of Galilee. He ruled form 4 BCE until his death in 34CE. He was able to build a temple to Augustus because the land he ruled over was very far from Jerusalem.
These Herodian rulers, however, were ineffective and therefore, they were replaced by Roman procurators, establishing direct Roman Rule in Israel.
Of these procurators, the most notable was Pontius Pilate, as he presided over the trial of Jesus and ordered his execution. He was governor form 26-36/7 CE, and not only was he ineffective, but he also provoked the Jews, with pagan symbols on his coins. From the time period 6-66 CE, Roman governors were very inexperienced. Coupled with Jewish nationalism and the advent of messianism and apocalyptic mindsets, internal conflicts were on the rise, eventually leading to open revolt in 66 CE.
Marking the first revolt in Jerusalem are coins that mark Jerusalem's independence from Rome, with inscriptions stating, "for the Freedom of Zion." Establishing their own currency was a way to use propaganda to fuel the revolt. However, in 67 CE, Roman General Vespasian is appointed to conquer Galilee, and in the following years, Nero dies, proclaiming Vespasian as Emperor of Rome in 70 CE. Then, Vespasian's son, Titus, takes over in the spring of 70CE. Then on the 9th of Ab, the same day as the destruction of the first Temple, Titus destroys the Second Temple. Then in 73 CE, the Masada holdouts (hiding in Herod's palace at Masada) commit suicide as the Roman troops begin marching up to the mountain.
Meanwhile, the Temple remains in ruins, until Hadrian converts it to a Temple dedicated to Jupiter in 135 CE. With the destruction of the second Temple, the Jews must revisit the cognitive dissonance felt after the destruction of the first Temple. As punishment, Vespasian issued a fiscus iudaicus, a special tax for Jews only. This gives a fiscal incentive to refuse Judaism. However, the destruction of the Temple started a transformation where the religion became more spiritual. Archaeological evidence that proves the account of the first revolt can be found in the Arch of Titus in Rome (where he commemorates his victory over Jerusalem), and in the Judea Capta Coins that were issued after the city's defeat.
Unlike the first revolt, there are not many sources for the second revolt. It was led by a man named Simon Bar-Kokhba, who attempted to embrace the role of an apocalyptic messiah who will deliver his people. In his endeavor to "liberate Jerusalem," he refers to himself as the "prince" (NSY), since he cannot call himself "King" or "Priest" as he is of neither line. Archaeological evidence found for the second revolt includes the Bar-Kokhba Revolt Coins, where it can be seen that he tries to mint coins similar to the ones found in the first revolt. However, as he mostly likely couldn't speak Hebrew fluently, there are many mistakes on these coins, and many of them are "overstrikes" (he took Roman coins and minted over them, so he didn't have to purchase his own silver). Depicted on these coins, was the second Temple; he uses this iconography in order to instigate passion within his followers, referring to the times when Jerusalem was independent.
However, the second revolt ended in bloody massacres, as Hadrian (Emperor of Rome) rebuilds Jerusalem as a Roman city, Aelia Capitolina, with a Temple dedicated to Jupiter. As a final punishment, he bans the Jews from the city. Survivors of this revolt are believed to lead two major sects known today as modern Judaism and Christianity.
It is commonly believed that the destruction of the city and the Temple marked the beginning of synagogues, where worship can occur outside of the Temple. An idea which contrasts completely with Hezekiah and Josiah's religious reforms.
Wednesday, February 16, 2011
Lecture 12: Herodian/Roman Jerusalem
Roman conquest and rule begin in Palestine in 63 BCE, marking the end of Hasmonean rule, which subsequently marked the end of Jewish autonomy until the modern era. Pompey besieged Jerusalem and annexed it to Rome during the civil war between brothers Hyrcanus II (Pharisees) and Aristobulus II (Sadducees). Hyrcanus II was installed as "ethnoarch" (not a kind, but a ruler of the people). Then, Idumean Anipater (from Idumea, south of Jerusalem, where people were forcibly "Judaized" by Hasmoneans) was installed as a procurator, while his sons were installed as local rulers (Herod was given Galilee). "The Abomination of Desolation" was believed to have occurred in 63 BCE when Pompey enters the "Holy of Holies," something that only the High Priest may do once a year.
The rise of Herod began after Antipater was murdered in 43 BCE. Then in 40 BCE, Herod helps the Romans expel the Parthians, thus gaining Roman approval and their recognition of him as King of Judea. Then in 39 BCE, Herod takes contorl of Galilee, Samaria, and Idumea. In 37 BCE, he takes over Jerusalem from the Parthians after seige.
Archaeological evidence of Herod's existence can be found in the coins of the time period that have his name inscribed on them. However, none of these coins have his portrait on them (as most Roman coins would have had) because he was sensitive to Jewish customs, as he was "superficially Jewish" since he was forcibly "Judaized" during the Hasmonean era. At the same time, he had pagan symbols on the coins (i.e., a star) to keep Roman approval.
During his entire reign, he tries to stay on the good side of both the Jews and the Romans, but ultimately, the Jewish people did not approve of him as king. Still, he ruled form 37 to 4 BCE. While many regarded him as a dictator, he was portrayed as paranoid and impulsive. Biblical evidence backs this claim in Matthew 2, where King Herod is outraged at the idea that a new Jewish King, named Jesus, would rule. Therefore, in an effort to prevent this from happening, he orders a mass murder of all boys in Bethlehem who were two years and younger.
Though he is infamous for being a dictator, he is also credited for his massive building projects that provided many jobs for the people of Jerusalem. One his most notable project was the expansion of the Temple, creating a Western Wall (that still stands today as the holiest place in Judaism). In models of Herod's Temple, it can be seen that the architecture reflected very much that of Roman buildings at the time. Discovered in excavations around the Temple Mount, was a Herodian Miqvah, or ritual bathing area, that was used for purification before entering the Temple. Also discovered was a side entrance to the Temple Mount, that was built upon a structure called, Robinson's Arch. Furthermore, on the top of the Southwest Corner was a stone that had the inscription: "For the Place of Trumpeting..." According to Josephus, the Priest would go to the highest point (the Southwest Corner of the Temple Mount) and blow the trumpet to mark the beginning and end of Sabbath. This inscription is archaeological evidence supporting Josephus' claim. The Citadel of David (believed to have been built during the Hasmonean Period and fortified by Herod) was also discovered. This fortification was most likely used as a keep during sieges from outside forces, but Herod also probably used it as a fortress when his people revolted.
After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, archaeologists uncovered a site known as the "Burnt House," which shows what common life was like during the Herodian period. Other sites of this period include: the Herodian Palace and Theater, Siloam Pool expansions, drainage systems, Jerusalem Hippodrome, and the Antonia Fortress (where Romans stayed to keep an eye on Temple activities). Around the Temple, there is a fence with an inscription with a warning to all Gentiles that entrance beyond this point would result in death.
Because Herod was sensitive to Jewish customs, he built another theater after Caesar in Caesarea, as homage to the Romans. He also built aquaducts and ports in Caesarea. For his own protection, he also built the Herodion just south of Jerusalem, which had a miqveh and a triclinium that marked the dining area.
Though Herod accommodated the Jews in many ways (respected the Temple and provided work), he was hated by them because he was only "half Jewish" and he was ultimately a puppet king to the Romans.
After discussing Herod's Jerusalem, we close lecture today with the question of whether Jesus existed or not. Although we have no solid archaeological evidence of his existence, is absence of evidence, evidence of absence?
The rise of Herod began after Antipater was murdered in 43 BCE. Then in 40 BCE, Herod helps the Romans expel the Parthians, thus gaining Roman approval and their recognition of him as King of Judea. Then in 39 BCE, Herod takes contorl of Galilee, Samaria, and Idumea. In 37 BCE, he takes over Jerusalem from the Parthians after seige.
Archaeological evidence of Herod's existence can be found in the coins of the time period that have his name inscribed on them. However, none of these coins have his portrait on them (as most Roman coins would have had) because he was sensitive to Jewish customs, as he was "superficially Jewish" since he was forcibly "Judaized" during the Hasmonean era. At the same time, he had pagan symbols on the coins (i.e., a star) to keep Roman approval.
During his entire reign, he tries to stay on the good side of both the Jews and the Romans, but ultimately, the Jewish people did not approve of him as king. Still, he ruled form 37 to 4 BCE. While many regarded him as a dictator, he was portrayed as paranoid and impulsive. Biblical evidence backs this claim in Matthew 2, where King Herod is outraged at the idea that a new Jewish King, named Jesus, would rule. Therefore, in an effort to prevent this from happening, he orders a mass murder of all boys in Bethlehem who were two years and younger.
Though he is infamous for being a dictator, he is also credited for his massive building projects that provided many jobs for the people of Jerusalem. One his most notable project was the expansion of the Temple, creating a Western Wall (that still stands today as the holiest place in Judaism). In models of Herod's Temple, it can be seen that the architecture reflected very much that of Roman buildings at the time. Discovered in excavations around the Temple Mount, was a Herodian Miqvah, or ritual bathing area, that was used for purification before entering the Temple. Also discovered was a side entrance to the Temple Mount, that was built upon a structure called, Robinson's Arch. Furthermore, on the top of the Southwest Corner was a stone that had the inscription: "For the Place of Trumpeting..." According to Josephus, the Priest would go to the highest point (the Southwest Corner of the Temple Mount) and blow the trumpet to mark the beginning and end of Sabbath. This inscription is archaeological evidence supporting Josephus' claim. The Citadel of David (believed to have been built during the Hasmonean Period and fortified by Herod) was also discovered. This fortification was most likely used as a keep during sieges from outside forces, but Herod also probably used it as a fortress when his people revolted.
After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, archaeologists uncovered a site known as the "Burnt House," which shows what common life was like during the Herodian period. Other sites of this period include: the Herodian Palace and Theater, Siloam Pool expansions, drainage systems, Jerusalem Hippodrome, and the Antonia Fortress (where Romans stayed to keep an eye on Temple activities). Around the Temple, there is a fence with an inscription with a warning to all Gentiles that entrance beyond this point would result in death.
Because Herod was sensitive to Jewish customs, he built another theater after Caesar in Caesarea, as homage to the Romans. He also built aquaducts and ports in Caesarea. For his own protection, he also built the Herodion just south of Jerusalem, which had a miqveh and a triclinium that marked the dining area.
Though Herod accommodated the Jews in many ways (respected the Temple and provided work), he was hated by them because he was only "half Jewish" and he was ultimately a puppet king to the Romans.
After discussing Herod's Jerusalem, we close lecture today with the question of whether Jesus existed or not. Although we have no solid archaeological evidence of his existence, is absence of evidence, evidence of absence?
Thursday, February 10, 2011
Lecture 11: Hasmonean Jerusalem
The road to revolt is characterized by conservative Jews resisting Hellenization. The Maccabean Revolt, named after its leader, Judas Maccabaeus, attacked "renegade" Jews and gentile villages in Palestine and Seleucid armies through guerilla warfare. This revolt eventually gained success in 165-164 BCE, which reinstalled Jews in Jerusalem and in control of the Temple. At this time, Hanukkah was established to commemorate the victory and re-claiming of the Temple.
The Maccabean Revolt gives rise to the Hasmonean Dynasty. Archaeological evidence from this point in time takes the form of Jewish coins. These coins are different from Greek coins in that they do not depict any human form as this goes against their religion.
The Hasmonean Rule lasts about 100 years; Jerusalem is autonomic from 165 BCE to about 63 BCE. However, as we will see, this era is the last time the Jews will be in control of their own government until modern times. Under the Hasmonians, Jerusalem expands, and people believe that the "Golden Age" has been restored. The Hasmoneans claim that their leadership will be temporary (as they understand that they are not part of the Davidic line), but their stewardship of the throne lasts far longer than they originally claimed.
Eventually, corruption finds its way back into the political system in Jerusalem, as the Hasmonian rulers who fought so hard to be rid of Hellenization became more Hellenized and secular. They assumed the High Priesthood, along with Kingship, which may have been the reason for the rise of the Qumran Sect who wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls. With their increasing Hellenism, came insensitivity to Jewish religious traditions, execution of political and religious opponents, and employment of mercenaries. Also, religion was used as a tool for nationalistic motives rather than religious ones. Ironically, Hasmonean rulers started to force people into Judaism. Herod the Great's family was believed to be one of the victims of these forced conversions.
The Temple became the center of Jewish identity under the Hasmoneans. Sects began to arise based on their attitudes toward the Temple. The Pharisees were neutral to the Temple, the Sadducees followed the Temple order, and the Qumran and Early Christian Sects were anti-Temple. While Hyrcanus II favors the Pharisees, Aristobus II favors the Sadducees.
However, like most dictatorships, the Hasmonean Rule came to an end with the Roman Conquest in 63 BCE, led by Pompey. Pompey restores Hyrcanus to High Priesthood, but rids his political authority. The entrance of the Romans marks the end of Jewish self-rule until the modern era.
The Maccabean Revolt gives rise to the Hasmonean Dynasty. Archaeological evidence from this point in time takes the form of Jewish coins. These coins are different from Greek coins in that they do not depict any human form as this goes against their religion.
The Hasmonean Rule lasts about 100 years; Jerusalem is autonomic from 165 BCE to about 63 BCE. However, as we will see, this era is the last time the Jews will be in control of their own government until modern times. Under the Hasmonians, Jerusalem expands, and people believe that the "Golden Age" has been restored. The Hasmoneans claim that their leadership will be temporary (as they understand that they are not part of the Davidic line), but their stewardship of the throne lasts far longer than they originally claimed.
Eventually, corruption finds its way back into the political system in Jerusalem, as the Hasmonian rulers who fought so hard to be rid of Hellenization became more Hellenized and secular. They assumed the High Priesthood, along with Kingship, which may have been the reason for the rise of the Qumran Sect who wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls. With their increasing Hellenism, came insensitivity to Jewish religious traditions, execution of political and religious opponents, and employment of mercenaries. Also, religion was used as a tool for nationalistic motives rather than religious ones. Ironically, Hasmonean rulers started to force people into Judaism. Herod the Great's family was believed to be one of the victims of these forced conversions.
The Temple became the center of Jewish identity under the Hasmoneans. Sects began to arise based on their attitudes toward the Temple. The Pharisees were neutral to the Temple, the Sadducees followed the Temple order, and the Qumran and Early Christian Sects were anti-Temple. While Hyrcanus II favors the Pharisees, Aristobus II favors the Sadducees.
However, like most dictatorships, the Hasmonean Rule came to an end with the Roman Conquest in 63 BCE, led by Pompey. Pompey restores Hyrcanus to High Priesthood, but rids his political authority. The entrance of the Romans marks the end of Jewish self-rule until the modern era.
Lecture 10: Hellenistic Jerusalem
The Hellenistic Period in Jerusalem began in 333 BCE with the Conquest of Alexander the Great, and lasted until about 167 BCE. There are very few sources (only the Apocrypha and accounts from Josephus, a Roman Historian) that document this era. During Hellenistic Jerusalem, we have archaeological evidence of Alexander's influence and power as his image is engraved on many coins. His conquest lasted from 336 to 323 BCE, capturing Palestine in 332 BCE. In 333 BCE, Alexander defeats the Persian King Darius at the Battle of Issus. Following this landmark battle, he continues to conquer the entire known world at the time, thus, explaining his prominence and reputation. It is during the Hellenistic period, that the High Priest comes to handle both economic and religious duties.
However, with the death of Alexander the Great, comes a division of his kingdom between the Ptolemies from Egypt and the Seleucids from Syria. The Ptolemies capture Jerusalem in 320 BC and rule until they are taken out by the Seleucids in 201 BCE. Under their leadership, Jerusalem is allowed autonomy, and they are given the chance to choose their own High Priest. However, when Antiochus III defeats Ptolemy V in 198 BCE at the Battle of Paneas, autonomy is lost, as the Seleucids begin to aggressively advocate Hellenism in Jerusalem, often against the will of the people. Under their reign, Jews are forced to speak Greek, for linguistic unity is supposed to provide imperial unity (this concept is somewhat reminiscent of how Sargon caused the shift from Arcadian to Aramaic). The Seleucids were keen on turning Jerusalem into a Greek polis (city), or center of Greek life.
The Greeks regard a polis as the highest and most natural civil institution, that--according to Aristotle--includes food supplies, crafts, skills, military, commerce, religion, and a system of justice.The Hellenization of Jerusalem causes social and economic experimentation in the form of adopting Greek architecture (gyms and theaters), art, coinage, education, entertainment, language, literature, philosophy, recreation, and even religion (this causes the most dispute among conservative Jews).
Archaeological evidence for the Hellenization of Jerusalem can be found in the Kidron Valley Tombs. For instance, the tombs of Benei Hezir, Zechariah, and Absalom are all Greek in style. Also, in this time, Jewish burial inscriptions were written in Greek. Further archaeological evidence can be found in Jewish homes such as the house in Sepphoris, where the centerpiece mosaic depicts the Greek myth of the drinking contest between Herakles and Dionysis (Greek God of Wine). Mosaics in Bet She'an depict the Greek City Goddess, Tyche, while the Beth Alpha Mosaic houses the zodiac in a synagogue.
Hellenism is so deeply rooted in Jerusalem at this point that even the Bible is influenced by Greek culture. Because Greek became the most spoken language of many Jews, the Hebrew Bible is translated into Greek. This translation is called the "Septuagint," where the New Testament derives many of its references. However, it is not a perfect translation of the Hebrew Bible, as it most likely includes the interpretations of the translators.
In any case, during the Seleucid reign, we see a pattern where rulers, such as Antiochus IV, deposing the High Priest at any sign of rebellion (Onias III is replaced by Jason who is in turn, replaced by Menelaus). Forms of aggressive Hellenization take the forms of looting the Temple, and Edicts that outlaw Jewish Religious practices. It it even goes so far as to convert the Temple into a Temple of Zeus.
The reaction to Hellenization varied: some welcomed it, while conservative Jews resisted it. This breeds infighting between Jews, eventually leading to a revolt, as will be discussed in the next lecture.
However, with the death of Alexander the Great, comes a division of his kingdom between the Ptolemies from Egypt and the Seleucids from Syria. The Ptolemies capture Jerusalem in 320 BC and rule until they are taken out by the Seleucids in 201 BCE. Under their leadership, Jerusalem is allowed autonomy, and they are given the chance to choose their own High Priest. However, when Antiochus III defeats Ptolemy V in 198 BCE at the Battle of Paneas, autonomy is lost, as the Seleucids begin to aggressively advocate Hellenism in Jerusalem, often against the will of the people. Under their reign, Jews are forced to speak Greek, for linguistic unity is supposed to provide imperial unity (this concept is somewhat reminiscent of how Sargon caused the shift from Arcadian to Aramaic). The Seleucids were keen on turning Jerusalem into a Greek polis (city), or center of Greek life.
The Greeks regard a polis as the highest and most natural civil institution, that--according to Aristotle--includes food supplies, crafts, skills, military, commerce, religion, and a system of justice.The Hellenization of Jerusalem causes social and economic experimentation in the form of adopting Greek architecture (gyms and theaters), art, coinage, education, entertainment, language, literature, philosophy, recreation, and even religion (this causes the most dispute among conservative Jews).
Archaeological evidence for the Hellenization of Jerusalem can be found in the Kidron Valley Tombs. For instance, the tombs of Benei Hezir, Zechariah, and Absalom are all Greek in style. Also, in this time, Jewish burial inscriptions were written in Greek. Further archaeological evidence can be found in Jewish homes such as the house in Sepphoris, where the centerpiece mosaic depicts the Greek myth of the drinking contest between Herakles and Dionysis (Greek God of Wine). Mosaics in Bet She'an depict the Greek City Goddess, Tyche, while the Beth Alpha Mosaic houses the zodiac in a synagogue.
Hellenism is so deeply rooted in Jerusalem at this point that even the Bible is influenced by Greek culture. Because Greek became the most spoken language of many Jews, the Hebrew Bible is translated into Greek. This translation is called the "Septuagint," where the New Testament derives many of its references. However, it is not a perfect translation of the Hebrew Bible, as it most likely includes the interpretations of the translators.
In any case, during the Seleucid reign, we see a pattern where rulers, such as Antiochus IV, deposing the High Priest at any sign of rebellion (Onias III is replaced by Jason who is in turn, replaced by Menelaus). Forms of aggressive Hellenization take the forms of looting the Temple, and Edicts that outlaw Jewish Religious practices. It it even goes so far as to convert the Temple into a Temple of Zeus.
The reaction to Hellenization varied: some welcomed it, while conservative Jews resisted it. This breeds infighting between Jews, eventually leading to a revolt, as will be discussed in the next lecture.
Tuesday, February 8, 2011
Lecture 9: Persian Jerusalem
The Persian Empire lasts from 539 BCE to 333 BCE. It is within this time period, that the Second Temple is built (539 BCE), until it is again destroyed in 70CE by the Romans. During this time, however, there are no non-Biblical texts dealing directly with Jerusalem. The Biblical Texts, on the other hand, document the events in the following books: Chronicles, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Ezra, Nehemiah, and 2nd Isaiah. The Book of Ezra is actually written in Aramaic, which shows the languages dominance in Judaism.
We begin our analysis of Biblical texts during this period with Ezekiel 1, where he claims that he has a vision of the Lord returning to a mobile state. His vision is reminiscent of the Ark of the Covenant (he describes winged animal that serves as a guardian, along with a box that has "wheels within wheels" for transport). His message, overall, is simply stating that God has not abandoned His people; He has returned to being mobile, and He is not only tied to the Temple. Following this vision is the idea of a more distant God, who does not physically dwell in the Temple, as was commonly believed in pre-exilic times.
The Persian presence in Jerusalem begins with King Cyrus, who (as claimed on Cyrus' Cylinder) announces the return of the Jews to their homelands. He is viewed as a "Liberator," rather than a conqueror (a tactic very different from that of the Assyrians and the Babylonians). His reasons for delivering the Jews, however, is not consistent in all the forms of evidence. In 2 Chronicles 36 and Ezra 1, it is simply stated that Cyrus will build a house in Jerusalem. But, in Isaiah 44, he is depicted as a sort of messiah, an anointed one who is doing the Hebrew God's will without knowing it. This passage can be problematic because Cyrus is a foreign king, and therefore, he's not part of the Davidic line. Furthermore, Cyrus' point of view on the Cylinder seems to claim that Marduk (God of the Babylonians) wanted him to take over Babylon.
Though the reason for Cyrus' deliverance of the Jews is different in these accounts, the result is still the same: the Babylonian Empire was ended and the Jews were free to return to Jerusalem. However, it is believed that the Persian presence at this time may have influenced Judaism as there are many similarities between Judaism and Zoroastrianism (which is the religion of Persians).
The first return occured in the late sixth century BCE during the reign of Cyrus, Cambyses II, and Darius I "the Usurper." During the first return, Zerubbabel, a Davidide, became governor (not king) of Jerusalem, as Joshua became the High Priest (who is now the new center for Jewish practice). The second Temple is built under Darius I's rule.
However, with the rebuilding of the Temple, comes the question of whether Jews need a Temple to prove that they are Jewish. In Haggai 1, it seems that a Temple is needed, but there are many who would have disagreed. Contentions of whether the second Temple should be built or not led to religious discontent.
We begin our analysis of Biblical texts during this period with Ezekiel 1, where he claims that he has a vision of the Lord returning to a mobile state. His vision is reminiscent of the Ark of the Covenant (he describes winged animal that serves as a guardian, along with a box that has "wheels within wheels" for transport). His message, overall, is simply stating that God has not abandoned His people; He has returned to being mobile, and He is not only tied to the Temple. Following this vision is the idea of a more distant God, who does not physically dwell in the Temple, as was commonly believed in pre-exilic times.
The Persian presence in Jerusalem begins with King Cyrus, who (as claimed on Cyrus' Cylinder) announces the return of the Jews to their homelands. He is viewed as a "Liberator," rather than a conqueror (a tactic very different from that of the Assyrians and the Babylonians). His reasons for delivering the Jews, however, is not consistent in all the forms of evidence. In 2 Chronicles 36 and Ezra 1, it is simply stated that Cyrus will build a house in Jerusalem. But, in Isaiah 44, he is depicted as a sort of messiah, an anointed one who is doing the Hebrew God's will without knowing it. This passage can be problematic because Cyrus is a foreign king, and therefore, he's not part of the Davidic line. Furthermore, Cyrus' point of view on the Cylinder seems to claim that Marduk (God of the Babylonians) wanted him to take over Babylon.
Though the reason for Cyrus' deliverance of the Jews is different in these accounts, the result is still the same: the Babylonian Empire was ended and the Jews were free to return to Jerusalem. However, it is believed that the Persian presence at this time may have influenced Judaism as there are many similarities between Judaism and Zoroastrianism (which is the religion of Persians).
The first return occured in the late sixth century BCE during the reign of Cyrus, Cambyses II, and Darius I "the Usurper." During the first return, Zerubbabel, a Davidide, became governor (not king) of Jerusalem, as Joshua became the High Priest (who is now the new center for Jewish practice). The second Temple is built under Darius I's rule.
However, with the rebuilding of the Temple, comes the question of whether Jews need a Temple to prove that they are Jewish. In Haggai 1, it seems that a Temple is needed, but there are many who would have disagreed. Contentions of whether the second Temple should be built or not led to religious discontent.
Lecture 8: Exile and Destruction and Cognitive Dissonance
After Josiah's death, Jerusalem enters a period on the brink of destruction, as Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonians enter the scene. King Nebuchadnezzar exiles Jerusalem three times in history. The first time, he exiles King Jehoiachin and Prophet Ezekiel to Babylonia in 597 BCE. The second time, however, is marked as the most memorable, for this is when he destroys Solomon's Temple in 586 BCE.
Josiah's death is often seen by scholars as a death that may counter deuteromistic claims, for he was considered a "good" king, yet his reign was relatively short. His rule was ended as he was killed by Pharoah Neco at Megiddo in 609 BCE. His death, however, has two accounts: one of which appears in 2 Kings (which just states that he died at the hand of Neco), and the other appears in 2 Chronicles 35 (which states that he was fatally wounded but brought back to Jerusalem, where he dies). It is said in the latter verse that Neco came to Jerusalem with the intent of helping the Assyrians (who were recently beaten by Babylonians), meaning Josiah's opposition could be seen as demonstrating loyalty to the Babylonians. This, under deuteronomistic claims, may be seen as the reason for Josiah's early death, despite the fact that he was viewed as a just king.
Returning to the Babylonian conquest, we examined evidence of the exile of the royal family. There were 290 tablets discovered near Ishtar Gate in 1930, four of which mention the royal family. The Babylonina Tablet documents "allowances" to the royal family, confirming what is said in 2 Kings 25 (which states that Jehoiachin was given allowances during his exile). The second exile is documented in 2 Kings 24-25, where King Zedekiah (who is put in charge by Nebuchadnezzar) rebels. His rebellion angers the Babylonian King, thus leading to the Temple's destruction in 586 BCE.
After the Temple's destruction, it is believed by some scholars that the Book of Kings was rewritten in an effort to justify the promise of the Lord to David in 2 Samuel 7. For instance, there are two endings to the Book of Kings. One, the Josianic Conclusion (which is written before Josiah's death) seems to have a peaceful ending, where there is hope of the continuation of the Davidic line. The other, post-exilic ending (2 Kings 23) seems to tell a different story, where it is said that the Lord is still angry because of Manasseh's disobedience and therefore, resolves to remove Jerusalem.
The post-exilic ending of the Book of Kings demonstrates one way in which people deal with cognitive dissonance, and that is to rationalize or redefine the promise made to David, stating that the promise is conditional--that disobedience leads to punishment and a revoking of the promise. For instance, in Lamentation 1 and Psalm 79 there is the idea that the people of Jerusalem sinned and are therefore, punished. In Psalm 137, there is the hope that God will avenge them and His promise will be kept.
After the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BCE, there is the rise of Name Theology, where the Lord does not physically reside in the Temple; it is merely his name that is worshiped there. Thus, when the Temple falls, it does not mean that the Lord has been defeated or abandoned them, for he does not literally dwell in the Temple (this view of God's presence is very different from the pre-exilic texts, where God is seen as physically living in the Temple).
Josiah's death is often seen by scholars as a death that may counter deuteromistic claims, for he was considered a "good" king, yet his reign was relatively short. His rule was ended as he was killed by Pharoah Neco at Megiddo in 609 BCE. His death, however, has two accounts: one of which appears in 2 Kings (which just states that he died at the hand of Neco), and the other appears in 2 Chronicles 35 (which states that he was fatally wounded but brought back to Jerusalem, where he dies). It is said in the latter verse that Neco came to Jerusalem with the intent of helping the Assyrians (who were recently beaten by Babylonians), meaning Josiah's opposition could be seen as demonstrating loyalty to the Babylonians. This, under deuteronomistic claims, may be seen as the reason for Josiah's early death, despite the fact that he was viewed as a just king.
Returning to the Babylonian conquest, we examined evidence of the exile of the royal family. There were 290 tablets discovered near Ishtar Gate in 1930, four of which mention the royal family. The Babylonina Tablet documents "allowances" to the royal family, confirming what is said in 2 Kings 25 (which states that Jehoiachin was given allowances during his exile). The second exile is documented in 2 Kings 24-25, where King Zedekiah (who is put in charge by Nebuchadnezzar) rebels. His rebellion angers the Babylonian King, thus leading to the Temple's destruction in 586 BCE.
After the Temple's destruction, it is believed by some scholars that the Book of Kings was rewritten in an effort to justify the promise of the Lord to David in 2 Samuel 7. For instance, there are two endings to the Book of Kings. One, the Josianic Conclusion (which is written before Josiah's death) seems to have a peaceful ending, where there is hope of the continuation of the Davidic line. The other, post-exilic ending (2 Kings 23) seems to tell a different story, where it is said that the Lord is still angry because of Manasseh's disobedience and therefore, resolves to remove Jerusalem.
The post-exilic ending of the Book of Kings demonstrates one way in which people deal with cognitive dissonance, and that is to rationalize or redefine the promise made to David, stating that the promise is conditional--that disobedience leads to punishment and a revoking of the promise. For instance, in Lamentation 1 and Psalm 79 there is the idea that the people of Jerusalem sinned and are therefore, punished. In Psalm 137, there is the hope that God will avenge them and His promise will be kept.
After the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BCE, there is the rise of Name Theology, where the Lord does not physically reside in the Temple; it is merely his name that is worshiped there. Thus, when the Temple falls, it does not mean that the Lord has been defeated or abandoned them, for he does not literally dwell in the Temple (this view of God's presence is very different from the pre-exilic texts, where God is seen as physically living in the Temple).
Lecture 7: Josiah's Jerusalem: Centralization of Religion in Jerusalem
We open lecture with Jerusalem's survival of the Assyrian siege in 701 BCE under the reign of Hezekiah. Under his ruling, Jerusalem grows and thus begins the centralization of religion in the city. However, after Hezekiah's death, his successor, Manasseh undoes all the centralization during his predecessor's reign. During this time, Jerusalem becomes an Assyrian vassal state, and there is much political unrest in the city. Conflicts rise to a climax at the assassination of Amon (2 Kings 21), which consequently dedicates the kingdom to Manasseh's son, Josiah. However, at this point, Josiah is only eight years old, and therefore, advisors were most likely the leaders of the nation. Important to note here is that with the installation of Josiah, comes an increasing importance of ruling under a text over ruling under a charismatic leader. In fact, it is believed that the Book of Deuteronomy was written in this time period, as a means to find other ways to build credibility and authority when the king is not a solid leader (as is the case of eight year old Josiah).
As Josiah grows old enough to rule the kingdom, he follows his grandfather's footsteps and begins a similar religious reform. It is said in 2 Kings 22-23, that during the cleaning of the Temple, a scroll was found (some believe this to be the Book of Deuteronomy or the Torah) that contained laws which eventually become the rule of the land.
Though Josiah's reform and centralization of religion in Jerusalem is very similar to Hezekiah's reform, there is one major difference. Hezekiah destroyed idols in other locations knowing that they were dedicated to the Hebrew God, whereas Josiah destroyed idols and shrines, believing that if they were not in Jerusalem, then they were worshipping foreign gods, and therefore, must be eradicated. Thus, he burned down the altars made by Judah and Manasseh, the shrine in Bethel (built by Jeroboam during Israel's secession), and the idols for Baal and Asherah. This reform established Josiah's Book Orthodoxy where one must only worship one orthodox and law, creating a new view of monotheism in Judaism.
During Josiah's reign, archaeological evidence reveals an increasing importance in literacy, as revealed by Lachish Letter 3 (587 BCE), where a soldier is offended for being misrepresented as illiterate. This letter demonstrates the stigma associated with those who are illiterate, thereby furthering the importance of writing and the law of the text.
Writing's importance is further emphasized by archaeological finds such as the Mezad Hashavyahu Ostracon (where a commoner refers to laws told in Exodus 22) and the Torah Amulets at Ketuf Hinnom (where two silver amulet are found that quote one of the oldest blessings in the Bible). Because writing appears in such everyday occurrences, we can see how Judaism is starting to become a text-based religion, as texts last longer than people, elevating its status even above the king.
As Josiah grows old enough to rule the kingdom, he follows his grandfather's footsteps and begins a similar religious reform. It is said in 2 Kings 22-23, that during the cleaning of the Temple, a scroll was found (some believe this to be the Book of Deuteronomy or the Torah) that contained laws which eventually become the rule of the land.
Though Josiah's reform and centralization of religion in Jerusalem is very similar to Hezekiah's reform, there is one major difference. Hezekiah destroyed idols in other locations knowing that they were dedicated to the Hebrew God, whereas Josiah destroyed idols and shrines, believing that if they were not in Jerusalem, then they were worshipping foreign gods, and therefore, must be eradicated. Thus, he burned down the altars made by Judah and Manasseh, the shrine in Bethel (built by Jeroboam during Israel's secession), and the idols for Baal and Asherah. This reform established Josiah's Book Orthodoxy where one must only worship one orthodox and law, creating a new view of monotheism in Judaism.
During Josiah's reign, archaeological evidence reveals an increasing importance in literacy, as revealed by Lachish Letter 3 (587 BCE), where a soldier is offended for being misrepresented as illiterate. This letter demonstrates the stigma associated with those who are illiterate, thereby furthering the importance of writing and the law of the text.
Writing's importance is further emphasized by archaeological finds such as the Mezad Hashavyahu Ostracon (where a commoner refers to laws told in Exodus 22) and the Torah Amulets at Ketuf Hinnom (where two silver amulet are found that quote one of the oldest blessings in the Bible). Because writing appears in such everyday occurrences, we can see how Judaism is starting to become a text-based religion, as texts last longer than people, elevating its status even above the king.
Wednesday, January 26, 2011
Lecture 6: Hezekiah's Jerusalem: Growth of a City
A Golden Age is created when someone of importance dies. From there, that person is memorialized, great palaces are usually built in that time frame, along with great temples, and the image of a United Kingdom. It is believed that the end of the Golden Age corresponded to the death of King Solomon in 930 BCE. Under Solomon's son, Rehoboam, the kingdom divided into ten tribes of the North (collectively known as Israel), and the two tribes to the South (known as Judah). It is said that Jeroboam from the North asks Rehoboam to lower their payment and lighten their workload, but Rehoboam chooses to crack down on the North, disregarding the advice of the elders (who tell him to appease the North to an extent).
Because the northern tribes do not want to travel all the way to Jerusalem to worship, they build two new shrines in Bethel and Dan. The South views this as disrespectful to the Lord; however, from the archaeological evidence, it is clear that they built alternate shrines as well (Beer-Sheeva and Arad Temple).
After the division of the United Kingdom, there is a numerous amount of infighting between Judah and Israel. For instance, Baasha (King of Israel) attacks Asa (King of Judah) around 875 BCE, causing Asa to seek the help of Ben-Hadad of Syria by paying him tribute form the Temple. Later, another king of Israel, Jehu, lets his kingdom become a vassal of the Assyrian Empire (an inscription was found depicting the tribute from Jehu to Shalmaneser III) in 841 BCE.
The Assyrian Menace began around the 8th c. BCE along the fertile crescent. From Tiglath-Pileser III (745 - 727 BCE) to Shalmaneser V (727 - 722 BCE), Assyria becomes a force to be reckoned with as they conquer and exile those in Israel. Meanwhile, Israel (before their exile) and Judah constantly try to play Assyria and Egypt against each other in hopes that that conflict will preoccupy both powers and keep them at bay.
Then, in 721 BCE, the Northern Kingdom falls (Samaria is down), and thus begins "ethnic cleansing" in the form of deportation, rape, and murder. Sargon II contributes to the deportation started by Shalmaneser V. Some believe that the fall of the Northern Kingdom was due to the Hand of God--that because the Northern tribes seceded, they were punished. Important to note however, is that with the fall of Israel comes the rise of Judah, as many exiles of Israel flee to Jerusalem for comfort.
The Assyrians were known for their ruthless tactics of conquest, as Shalmaneser III brags about his murder of many innocent lives. Common during such a time period were public displays of murder used in an effort to spread fear.
As the Assyrians are establishing their stronghold over the Canaan lands, Jerusalem is rapidly growing due to the downfall of Israel. There is increasing industry and a thriving global economy, along with an increasing population. Because Jerusalem becomes stronger, it also becomes a threat to the Assyrians. Proof that such was the case can be found in the archaeological evidence of King Hezekiah's preparations for siege. The construction of the "Broad Wall" and "Hezekiah's Tunnel" are evidence to the fact that Hezekiah was fortifying Jerusalem.
Monday, January 24, 2011
Lecture 5: Solomon's Jerusalem (970 - 930 BCE)
Today, we began by reviewing concepts we have learned in the few weeks before about Jerusalem as a sacred space, as it attracts numerous Biblical passages. It is often viewed as the axis of Heaven and Earth (axis mundi, as termed by Mircea Eliade).
Then, we moved on to analyze Solomon's rule over Jerusalem. As a disclaimer, there is not much archaeological evidence for Solomon's empire, meaning we must stay with literary evidence through the Bible. Many believe that this is reason enough to disregard the existence of Solomon entirely. However, we will be focusing on literary texts that seem to state otherwise.
One of these texts is known as "Solomon's Prayer of Dedication" found in 1 Kings 8, where he claims that he as "provided a place for the ark." Important to note in this passage is the idea that the Lord is physically in the temple. However, this idea is challenged when the temple is burned down by the Babylonians.
More biblical accounts of Solomon's existence can be found in 1 Kings 1, where he is anointed at Gihon Spring. Also, he is believed to have authored the Book of Proverbs, ecclesiates (Qohelet), and Song of Songs (provacative writing that Solomon is credited for because he had many wives).
Though there is a lot of biblical evidence for his existence, there is very little archaeological evidence, as mentioned before. There is no palace, and hardly any evidence for the temple's existence because it is destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, and it is believed that the ruins of Solomon's temple were cleared out when Herod rebuilds it. However, at this point, Professor Cargill raises an interesting question: "Is the absence of evidence, evidence of absence?" This question seems to be a recurring motif in the scholarly debate over Solomon's Temple.
One example of this debate can be found in studies of the Megiddo, where different scholars are looking at the same sediments, but are coming up with different conclusions and interpretations as to what the sediments mean. Two opposing viewpoints include: the conventional chronology (follows the Bible's telling of Solomon's existence) and the low chronology (where the sediment associated with Solomon in the 10th century BCE in the conventional chronology is actually associated with Ahab, who is a descendant of Solomon, meaning Solomon didn't build the temple).
In 1 Kings 6 -7, Solomon's temple is described with the Ark of the Covenant in the very back section, called the "Holy of Holies." In the front, there are 2 pillars (Boaz and Jackin according to 1 Kings 7). Furthermore, there is an inscription that says "may you be blessed by the Lord and his Asherah (female foreign God, who may have been the Lord's wife)." This may be evidence of how monotheism, as we know it today, was nonexistent. Finally, there is a Bronze Sea as described in 1 Kings 7 that could symbolize the sea as a cosmic element.
Though there is no solid evidence of the temple's existence, there are parallels that can be made with other temples at the time in design. Comparative evidence can be found in the Tel Arad Temple, Tel Ta'yinat (9th century BCE North Syrian Temple), and 'Ain Dara (10th century BCE). These temples all have similar designs to the one described in 1 Kings 6-7. Out of these temples, 'Ain Dara is given significance because it has, quite literally, the "footsteps of God" at its entrance, which reveals that at this point in time, God was still viewed as a being who physically dwelled in the temple.
Then, we moved on to analyze Solomon's rule over Jerusalem. As a disclaimer, there is not much archaeological evidence for Solomon's empire, meaning we must stay with literary evidence through the Bible. Many believe that this is reason enough to disregard the existence of Solomon entirely. However, we will be focusing on literary texts that seem to state otherwise.
One of these texts is known as "Solomon's Prayer of Dedication" found in 1 Kings 8, where he claims that he as "provided a place for the ark." Important to note in this passage is the idea that the Lord is physically in the temple. However, this idea is challenged when the temple is burned down by the Babylonians.
More biblical accounts of Solomon's existence can be found in 1 Kings 1, where he is anointed at Gihon Spring. Also, he is believed to have authored the Book of Proverbs, ecclesiates (Qohelet), and Song of Songs (provacative writing that Solomon is credited for because he had many wives).
Though there is a lot of biblical evidence for his existence, there is very little archaeological evidence, as mentioned before. There is no palace, and hardly any evidence for the temple's existence because it is destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, and it is believed that the ruins of Solomon's temple were cleared out when Herod rebuilds it. However, at this point, Professor Cargill raises an interesting question: "Is the absence of evidence, evidence of absence?" This question seems to be a recurring motif in the scholarly debate over Solomon's Temple.
One example of this debate can be found in studies of the Megiddo, where different scholars are looking at the same sediments, but are coming up with different conclusions and interpretations as to what the sediments mean. Two opposing viewpoints include: the conventional chronology (follows the Bible's telling of Solomon's existence) and the low chronology (where the sediment associated with Solomon in the 10th century BCE in the conventional chronology is actually associated with Ahab, who is a descendant of Solomon, meaning Solomon didn't build the temple).
In 1 Kings 6 -7, Solomon's temple is described with the Ark of the Covenant in the very back section, called the "Holy of Holies." In the front, there are 2 pillars (Boaz and Jackin according to 1 Kings 7). Furthermore, there is an inscription that says "may you be blessed by the Lord and his Asherah (female foreign God, who may have been the Lord's wife)." This may be evidence of how monotheism, as we know it today, was nonexistent. Finally, there is a Bronze Sea as described in 1 Kings 7 that could symbolize the sea as a cosmic element.
Though there is no solid evidence of the temple's existence, there are parallels that can be made with other temples at the time in design. Comparative evidence can be found in the Tel Arad Temple, Tel Ta'yinat (9th century BCE North Syrian Temple), and 'Ain Dara (10th century BCE). These temples all have similar designs to the one described in 1 Kings 6-7. Out of these temples, 'Ain Dara is given significance because it has, quite literally, the "footsteps of God" at its entrance, which reveals that at this point in time, God was still viewed as a being who physically dwelled in the temple.
Lecture 4: David's Jerusalem
We started off with a revisiting of David with the well-known story of David and Goliath. Then, we went into a brief discussion over the relatively few pieces of archaeologically significant evidence that is available to those studying the existence of David's Jerusalem. However, one of the key pieces of observable evidence is "The Millo" (stepped stone structure) which appears to have been a support above Gihon Spring that could have acted as a buttress to David's Palace.
Further archaeological parallels with the Bible include Warren's Shaft which provided an access to the Gihon Spring (though now scholars doubt that this was actually used to get water). This could be the tunnel that Joab climbs up in 2 Chronicles 11.
After David's reign, ruled his son, Solomon, who was believed--based on 1 Kings 1--to have been anointed by Gihon Spring, as the passage states "ride my (Lord's) own mule...bring him (Solomon) down to Gihon...anoint him king over Israel." Recurring themes of coronation ceremonies as riding on a donkey to Gihon Spring appear again in Zechariah 9 and Matthew 21.
After a brief overview of Solomon's anointment, we moved on to study archaeological evidence of King Hezekiah's existence and expansion of Jerusalem's waterworks (ex. tunnel inscription that empties out to the Siloam Pool)
We moved on to discuss how David moves the Ark of the Covenant (the portable representation of God) to Jerusalem, signaling a change from a nomadic God to a sendentary one. The movement of the Ark is captured in 2 Samuel 6 and in 1 Chronicles 21. It is important to note, however, that while David moves the Ark into Jerusalem, and builds a palace for himself (2 Samuel 5), the Ark still lays in the tabernacle (tent).
However, David does not build a temple for God because he is given a promise from the Lord that his son will build Him a temple and that the Lord will "establish the throne of [David] forever" (2 Samuel 7). However, when the Babylonians destroy the temple, along with David's line in 586 BCE, some people lose their faith, while others reinterpret the passage as a promise that there will be a returning Davidic king (not necessarily that the Davidic line is unbreakable). Jesus, in the New Testament, is sometimes referred to as the "Son of David" in order to justify the promise made in 2 Samuel 7.
We closed lecture with a final look on how tradition is built in Jerusalem (stories and legends are attracted to Jerusalem as a setting) by examining briefly, a few biblical texts (Deutoronomy 12, Exodus 12, Genesis 1-2, 22, Psalm 110 and 76).
Further archaeological parallels with the Bible include Warren's Shaft which provided an access to the Gihon Spring (though now scholars doubt that this was actually used to get water). This could be the tunnel that Joab climbs up in 2 Chronicles 11.
After David's reign, ruled his son, Solomon, who was believed--based on 1 Kings 1--to have been anointed by Gihon Spring, as the passage states "ride my (Lord's) own mule...bring him (Solomon) down to Gihon...anoint him king over Israel." Recurring themes of coronation ceremonies as riding on a donkey to Gihon Spring appear again in Zechariah 9 and Matthew 21.
After a brief overview of Solomon's anointment, we moved on to study archaeological evidence of King Hezekiah's existence and expansion of Jerusalem's waterworks (ex. tunnel inscription that empties out to the Siloam Pool)
We moved on to discuss how David moves the Ark of the Covenant (the portable representation of God) to Jerusalem, signaling a change from a nomadic God to a sendentary one. The movement of the Ark is captured in 2 Samuel 6 and in 1 Chronicles 21. It is important to note, however, that while David moves the Ark into Jerusalem, and builds a palace for himself (2 Samuel 5), the Ark still lays in the tabernacle (tent).
However, David does not build a temple for God because he is given a promise from the Lord that his son will build Him a temple and that the Lord will "establish the throne of [David] forever" (2 Samuel 7). However, when the Babylonians destroy the temple, along with David's line in 586 BCE, some people lose their faith, while others reinterpret the passage as a promise that there will be a returning Davidic king (not necessarily that the Davidic line is unbreakable). Jesus, in the New Testament, is sometimes referred to as the "Son of David" in order to justify the promise made in 2 Samuel 7.
We closed lecture with a final look on how tradition is built in Jerusalem (stories and legends are attracted to Jerusalem as a setting) by examining briefly, a few biblical texts (Deutoronomy 12, Exodus 12, Genesis 1-2, 22, Psalm 110 and 76).
Thursday, January 13, 2011
Lecture 3: Canaanite Jerusalem and David's Jerusalem
We opened lecture today with a study of rulers and society in Jerusalem before King David. The Earliest settlement seems to date back to the Chalcolithic Period around 4000 BCE. Settlements during Bronze Age Jerusalem recorded in the Bible are, for the most part, backed by archaeological evidence and non-biblical texts. Such texts include: execration texts, fortifications, and the Armarna Letters. Execration texts are ritual curse texts that mention the names of Jerusalem rulers as far back as 1900 BCE. Fortifications are man-made structures in Jerusalem that date back the the eighteenth century BCE (i.e., Pool Tower from the East that protects Gihon Spring). Finally, the Armarna Letters surfaced around 1350 BCE, and they include letters written from rulers in Canaan and Syria to Egyptian Pharaoh (Akhenaten). These letters are pleas for help and protection from the powerful nation.
We moved on to examine the first Biblical account of Jerusalem in Genesis 14:17 (Abraham and Melchizedek), where the city is referred to as "Salem."
After going over briefly the history of Jerusalem before the time of King David, we analyzed the textual problem with the "Conquest of Joshua." It seems, from reading Judges and Joshua, that the Bible contradicts itself. Such an observation is still a topic of much debate. While some choose to dismiss the recordings in the Bible as mere stories, others choose to view these contradictions as a result of multiple authors. In any case, scholars are now divided among three options when considering how the Israelites made their way to Canaan.
These three options simply put are: they were suddenly there by Conquest (as suggested by the Bible), they immigrated slowly into Canaan, or they were always there (they could have revolted against other Canaanites, or they could have had a gradual shift away from Canaanite view). Most archaeological evidence seems to support the third option.
We closed lecture today with a brief introduction to David's life and rule in Jerusalem (City of David). There is no mention of David in archaeological evidence until the discovery of the Tel Dan Inscription.
We moved on to examine the first Biblical account of Jerusalem in Genesis 14:17 (Abraham and Melchizedek), where the city is referred to as "Salem."
After going over briefly the history of Jerusalem before the time of King David, we analyzed the textual problem with the "Conquest of Joshua." It seems, from reading Judges and Joshua, that the Bible contradicts itself. Such an observation is still a topic of much debate. While some choose to dismiss the recordings in the Bible as mere stories, others choose to view these contradictions as a result of multiple authors. In any case, scholars are now divided among three options when considering how the Israelites made their way to Canaan.
These three options simply put are: they were suddenly there by Conquest (as suggested by the Bible), they immigrated slowly into Canaan, or they were always there (they could have revolted against other Canaanites, or they could have had a gradual shift away from Canaanite view). Most archaeological evidence seems to support the third option.
We closed lecture today with a brief introduction to David's life and rule in Jerusalem (City of David). There is no mention of David in archaeological evidence until the discovery of the Tel Dan Inscription.
Lecture 2: Construction - The Primeval Archetype (Jerusalem as a Sacred Space)
Today in lecture, we discussed the motif of creation that seems to appear over and over again when considering the construction of a sacred space. For instance, Revelation 21: 1-5, the "New" Jerusalem is described as being lowered from the Heavens. Sacred space and sacred time, as defined by Eliade, refer to a location or time where something divine or supernatural occurs that is reason enough to set it apart from the mundane, or profane.
Between the sacred and profane, lies Jerusalem, an axis mundi, where one has access to both realms. Geological and historical accounts of the Hinnom Valley to the west of Jerusalem seem to support this idea, for this valley is believed to have been a garbage disposal of sorts (and also possibly the burial site of human sacrificial victims). Because of the nature of the Hinnom Valley, many hold the conviction that the valley is illustrative of the underworld, as it is called "Gehenna" in Greek (referenced in Matthew 5:22), literally meaning "Gates of Hell." The Hinnom Valley's close proximity to the Holy City therefore, supports the idea that Jerusalem is indeed a place where both the sacred and profane meet.
We wrapped up lecture with a discussion on how Biblical texts (psalms and passages) refer to Jerusalem as sacred, as legends and myths are constantly drawn to the city.
Between the sacred and profane, lies Jerusalem, an axis mundi, where one has access to both realms. Geological and historical accounts of the Hinnom Valley to the west of Jerusalem seem to support this idea, for this valley is believed to have been a garbage disposal of sorts (and also possibly the burial site of human sacrificial victims). Because of the nature of the Hinnom Valley, many hold the conviction that the valley is illustrative of the underworld, as it is called "Gehenna" in Greek (referenced in Matthew 5:22), literally meaning "Gates of Hell." The Hinnom Valley's close proximity to the Holy City therefore, supports the idea that Jerusalem is indeed a place where both the sacred and profane meet.
We wrapped up lecture with a discussion on how Biblical texts (psalms and passages) refer to Jerusalem as sacred, as legends and myths are constantly drawn to the city.
Saturday, January 8, 2011
Lecture 1: Jerusalem as a Sacred Place
I figure reading an outline of the lecture is a lot easier than reading paragraph after paragraph of summarized text, which is why I've decided to post my notes to this blog. Enjoy!
Lecture 1: Jerusalem as a Sacred Place
· Jerusalem as a Sacred Place
o 3000 year legacy (lots of bloodspill)
o How does place become sacred?
§ Something (usually supernatural) significant happens at the site
§ Someone important is born at the site
· How is Jerusalem a great city?
o Middle E. Geo Context
§ Routes (communication)
· The Via Maris (“Route by the Sea” / Great Trunk Road)
o From Egypt to Mesopotamia
o The Land of Caaan/Israel/Palestine is the landbridge between Africa and Asia
· The King’s Highway (Transjordan)
o From Red Sea (Arabia to Mesopotamia
· Between the Mediterranean Sea an dht eDesert
· On Earthquake Fault between Africa and Asia
§ People stay on the Fertile Crescent (along Euphrates and Tigris)
· Connects Africa, India, Europe, and Asia à valuable for trade
· Major trade routes (Via Maris and King’s Highway) along fertile crescent
o Physical Features
§ Topography (on a hill à key location for defense)
· Valleys
o Kidron Valley (East)
o Hinnom Valley (West)
o Tyropean (Central)
§ 4 quarters (with Temple Mount as fifth quarter)
· Christian (Northwest), Islamic (Northeast), Armenian (Southwest), and Jewish (Southeast)
· Temple Mount: West Wall = holiest site in Judaism because it’s the closest to the temple you can get
§ Jerusalem on hill for defense
· North = weak spot and where it is usually attacked
§ Mount Zion
· Mounts = symbolic of Lord’s protection
· Jerusalem will be tallest mountain à closer to God à significance (as opposed to valley which is farthest from God and thereby closer to death
· Water = number one needed resource (sea for trade, water for defense, and resources/fertility)
o Jerusalme = no harbor, river, trunk road; not many resources but still considered Holy City
§ Water scarcity = BIGGEST PROBLEM IN JERUSALEM
§ Gihon Spring (also en. Rogel, Siloam Pool, Hezekiah’s Tunnel, Sheep/Israel Pool, Hezekiah’s Pool)
· Next to the City of David
· King Hezekiah digs tunnel to transfer water form Gihon Spring; water moves into the city via Warren’s Shaft
o Compromise for water scarcity
o Tunnel dumpes into the Siloam Poll
o Current Political conflict:
§ Houses now on top of Siloam Pool
· Israelis want to excavate Pool à Muslim houses on top are destroyed à “Misuse of Archaeology as a weapon”
o Jerusalem become holy city because of physical attributes of the city à recurring them = history/myth magnet
o Water as Sacred
§ Gen 2 “Rivers of the Garden of Eden”
· River flows out of Eden to water Garden, splits to 4 branches: Picchon, Gihon, Tigris, Euphrates (magnet for legends); story associated with Jerusalem’s location
§ Ezekiel 47 “Water Under the New Temple”
· Prophecy of Water out of Temple
o Water makes place sacred à ritually purifying
§ Holy Water in Christianity (baptism)
§ Bronze Sea in Judaism
§ Fountains to clean oneself in Muslim
§ Revelation 22 “The River of the New Jerusalem”
· River of the water of life
§ Quran mentions rivers of water, milk, drink, honey
o Why is Jerusalem the center of the world? (“Access Mundi”)
· “Sacred Space”
o Construction of Sacred Space
§ Sacred Space must be founded
· “Tower of Babel”
o Men want to be closer to Heave à build tall building; Lord comes down and scattered them by making the languages they speak different so they couldn’t come together to build tower; felt that without doing so, men could have actually built a tower tall enough to reach Heaven
§ Etiology of multiple languages
· Etiology: attempt to explain naturally occurring phenomena
· Genesis “Beth-el and Jacob’s Ladder”
o Jacob claims the land he lies on is the House of God because he dreams of angels ascending and descending ladder à God claims that his children will be fertile and many à fertility blessing
§ Jacob names land “Bethel”
§ To show it is House of God, he sets up pillar and anoints it with oil
o Events of Jewish Temple
§ Solomon’s Temple
· Built 950 BCE
· Destroyed by Babylonians 586 BCE
§ 2nd Temple
· Rebuilt 515 BCE
· Aggrandized 20 BCE
o Western/Wailing Wall
· Destoryed 70 CE by Romans
§ Dome of the Rock: First build 691 CE
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