Timeline of major events occurring in 21st Century Jerusalem:
May 2000: Israel withdraws from South Lebanon
Sept 2000: Second Intifada
Sept 2001: 9/11
2002: Israel begins construction of the West Bank Barrier (however, the border is based on new boundaries, not the one established in the 1947 UN Partitioning Plan)
2004: Arafat dies
2005: Israel forcibly moves out of Gaza
Jan 2006: Hamas defeats the Fatah (Arafat's former party) in Palestinian Elections
July 2006: Israel-Hizbullah War fought in South Lebanon and North Israel
2007: Palestinian Civil War (Hamas control Gaza, while Fatah controls West Bank)
2009: Operation Cast Lead (Israel response to Hama's attacks)
Mar 2010: Israel announces new housing settlements in East Jerusalem
May 2010: IHH Gaza Flotilla (Humanitarian effort to bring supplies) boarded by Israeli Troops; people revolt, and causes violent outbreak that ends in 9 deaths.
Thursday, March 10, 2011
Lecture 18: 20th Century Jerusalem
20th Century Jerusalem is marked by the British Mandate Period, which lasted from the end of World War I to the end of World War II (1918-1948). Also significant in this era is the propagation of secular Zionism, though the roots of Zionism began in the nineteenth century. In 1840, Yehuda Hai Alchelai started a fund in order to buy land in Palestine; many orthodox Jews, however, rejected Zionism as impious. Then, in 1896, Theodore Herzl calls for the need of a Jewish State. Important to keep in mind are Herzl's secular goals during this process, as he does not consider Jerusalem's sacred history as fundamental for the Jewish State. Therefore, he proposes for a Jewish State, not in the "Holy City," but in Uganda. This notion builds support, as Herzl is regarded as the "Messiah, the Son of David."
With the advent of Secular Zionism, also comes the rise of Antisemitism and Immigration. During the 20th century, there is an increasing rise in European nationalism. While antisemitic behavior and actions increase in Europe, many Jews flee to Palestine, exponentially increasing the population count in Jerusalem.
Resulting from the first world war is the partitioning of the former Ottoman Empire between France and Britain. The Sykes-Picot Agreement in 1916 between these two powers divided the Ottoman lands such that France had control (in either the form of direct rule or spheres of influence) of Turkey, North Iraq, Lebanon, and Syria, while Britain had control of South Iraq, Palestine, and Jordan.
Following the Sykes Picot Agreement, British Prime Minister Lloyd tells Arthur Balfour to write to Lord Rothschild (leader of British Jews) a promise for a Jewish State in Palestine. Known as the Balfour Declaration of 1917, the letter caused much controversy, leading to Arab riots in 1920 and 1921. In response to these violent outbreaks, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill writes the "White Paper of 1922," with a mission to clarify the terms of the Balfour Declaration. The White Paper gave a portion of the land West of the Jordan to Jews, and the land East of the Jordan, renamed Transjordan to Abdullah I.
As violence continues to escalate between the Arabs and the Jews prior to WWII, the UN suggests the Peel Plan, which calls for a "two state solution." Under this plan, the Jewish state would be established in Galilee, Upper Jordan Valley, and Coastal Plain, while the Palestinian state would be in the Central Hills, West Bank, and Negev. Jerusalem would be an "international city." Though suggested in 1937, it was not ratified by the UN until 1947. This compromise was accepted by the Zionists as a bare minimum, but it was completely rejected by the Arabs. Disagreement leads to fighting in Jerusalem.
Violence breaks out in 1948 in the form of a civil war. Often regarded as the Arab-Israeli War, or the War of Independence by Israel, this event marks the end of the British Mandate. As the Israelis launch Operation Pitchfork to capture "Bevingrad" in central Jerusalem, the Jordanian army arrives. The two powers sign an armistice, creating the Green Line between Israel and Jordanian held West Bank. At this point, Israel declared Independence, controlling West Jerusalem.
Arab unrest during this period can be evidenced in the assassination of King Abdullah I in front of the Al Aqsa Mosque in 1951. Two years later, King Hussein declares Jerusalem the second capital of the State of Jordan in 1953.
Once again, violence breaks out over Jerusalem in the Six Day War of 1967. During this time, Israel enters the Old City, and claims that they will never move out of Jerusalem again. Within the next few days, Israeli General, Moshe Dayan gives control of the Temple Mount to the Muslims, and Jews are forbidden to pray or enter the Haram. Though Israel annexes the Old City and East Jerusalem (formerly under Jordanian control), the annexation is not recognized by the UN.
The results of the Six Day War--Israeli occupation of the city--causes the first Intifada (Palestinian uprising). The Oslo Accords are a response to the violence that breaks out in 1988-1992 (following the unilateral declaration of a Palestinian State). In its terms are a calling for a Palestinian Authority that would control Palestinian areas in the occupied territories. Also in the accords are the letters of Mutual Recognition, where the Palestinian Liberation Organization would recognize Israel's right to statehood, while Israel would recognize Arafat as the legitimate chairman of the PLO.
A second intifada was believed to be caused by Ariel Sharom's visit on the Haram in 2000, as the Israelis were not supposed to step foot on the Temple Mount out of respect for the location of the ancient Holy of Holies.
With the advent of Secular Zionism, also comes the rise of Antisemitism and Immigration. During the 20th century, there is an increasing rise in European nationalism. While antisemitic behavior and actions increase in Europe, many Jews flee to Palestine, exponentially increasing the population count in Jerusalem.
Resulting from the first world war is the partitioning of the former Ottoman Empire between France and Britain. The Sykes-Picot Agreement in 1916 between these two powers divided the Ottoman lands such that France had control (in either the form of direct rule or spheres of influence) of Turkey, North Iraq, Lebanon, and Syria, while Britain had control of South Iraq, Palestine, and Jordan.
Following the Sykes Picot Agreement, British Prime Minister Lloyd tells Arthur Balfour to write to Lord Rothschild (leader of British Jews) a promise for a Jewish State in Palestine. Known as the Balfour Declaration of 1917, the letter caused much controversy, leading to Arab riots in 1920 and 1921. In response to these violent outbreaks, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill writes the "White Paper of 1922," with a mission to clarify the terms of the Balfour Declaration. The White Paper gave a portion of the land West of the Jordan to Jews, and the land East of the Jordan, renamed Transjordan to Abdullah I.
As violence continues to escalate between the Arabs and the Jews prior to WWII, the UN suggests the Peel Plan, which calls for a "two state solution." Under this plan, the Jewish state would be established in Galilee, Upper Jordan Valley, and Coastal Plain, while the Palestinian state would be in the Central Hills, West Bank, and Negev. Jerusalem would be an "international city." Though suggested in 1937, it was not ratified by the UN until 1947. This compromise was accepted by the Zionists as a bare minimum, but it was completely rejected by the Arabs. Disagreement leads to fighting in Jerusalem.
Violence breaks out in 1948 in the form of a civil war. Often regarded as the Arab-Israeli War, or the War of Independence by Israel, this event marks the end of the British Mandate. As the Israelis launch Operation Pitchfork to capture "Bevingrad" in central Jerusalem, the Jordanian army arrives. The two powers sign an armistice, creating the Green Line between Israel and Jordanian held West Bank. At this point, Israel declared Independence, controlling West Jerusalem.
Arab unrest during this period can be evidenced in the assassination of King Abdullah I in front of the Al Aqsa Mosque in 1951. Two years later, King Hussein declares Jerusalem the second capital of the State of Jordan in 1953.
Once again, violence breaks out over Jerusalem in the Six Day War of 1967. During this time, Israel enters the Old City, and claims that they will never move out of Jerusalem again. Within the next few days, Israeli General, Moshe Dayan gives control of the Temple Mount to the Muslims, and Jews are forbidden to pray or enter the Haram. Though Israel annexes the Old City and East Jerusalem (formerly under Jordanian control), the annexation is not recognized by the UN.
The results of the Six Day War--Israeli occupation of the city--causes the first Intifada (Palestinian uprising). The Oslo Accords are a response to the violence that breaks out in 1988-1992 (following the unilateral declaration of a Palestinian State). In its terms are a calling for a Palestinian Authority that would control Palestinian areas in the occupied territories. Also in the accords are the letters of Mutual Recognition, where the Palestinian Liberation Organization would recognize Israel's right to statehood, while Israel would recognize Arafat as the legitimate chairman of the PLO.
A second intifada was believed to be caused by Ariel Sharom's visit on the Haram in 2000, as the Israelis were not supposed to step foot on the Temple Mount out of respect for the location of the ancient Holy of Holies.
Saturday, March 5, 2011
Lecture 17: Mamluk and Ottoman Jerusalem
Mamluk Jerusalem begins around 1250 and ends in 1516. It is believed that the Mamluk were a grassroots movement of the people without power. During this time, Jerusalem becomes a religious center, as the Ziyara ("visit") to Jerusalem becomes an important pilgrimage to the city (this is comparable to the Hajj in Islamic faith). Though Jerusalem becomes increasingly spiritual, there is a constant decline in its political and military significance, as it is now city with no defense, for the walls were dismantled in 1219 during the Crusades.
At this point, the city is still Islamic, and we see the building of schools, hospices, and hostels where Crusader structures are used as stone quarries. Many madrasas (schools that preach Islam) are founded during this period.
Then from 1351 to 1353, Jerusalem suffers from the Black Death.
Characteristic of Mamluk architecture is the building of walls with alternating red and white stones. As we can see in the Dome of the Rock, entrances are made monumental, and there is extensive use of the Muqarnas design for domes. This is where square bricks are used to make the round dome shape.
More markers of the city's Islam centered nature include the Al Madrasa al Ashrafiyya and the Ghawanima Minaret. The former is a Qur'aniic school, called the "third jewel of Jerusalem" after the Dome of the Rock and the Al Aqsa Mosque. It was built in 1485, by Sultan al Ashrat, who was known for his many other architectural feats. The latter is located in the Northwest corner of the Haram; built in 1298 by Chief Judge Qadi of Jerusalem, it has foundations of an Umayyad minaret and it uses Crusader columns and capitals.
Charitable foundations in Mamluk Jerusalem include mausoleums, schools, public water fountains, and hospices. Burial near the Haram increased in importance from 13th century and onwareds as traditions grew that linked Jerusalem and especially the Haram as the place of Final Judgment.
During the Mamluk period, development of the Haram involved the addition of minarets, a summer pulpit, and the restoration of the Dome and the Al Aqsa Mosque.
Co-occurring at this time is the growth of the Jewish Quarter. Jerusalem is no longer political, but increasingly spiritual. Rabbi Moses ben Nachman makes aliyah in 1267, as he founds the Ramban Synagogue (Jewish Center). He also develops kabbalah, or Jewish Mysticism, where the Temple symbolized the path to God. Rabbi Moses was believed to be one of the first Zionists, who interpreted everything about Judaism through a mystic sense; he is also believed to have had an aggressive refutation of Christians.
After the Mamluk period, came the Ottomon era which lasted from 1516 to 1918. The Ottomans take Constantinople in 1453. Selim I beats the Mamluks in 1517 at Marj Dabik (N. Syria); he is described as the new possessor of the "first qiblah." Jerusalem peacefully surrenders in 1516. With the establishment of the Ottoman empire comes a strong central government.
Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (1520 - 1566) partakes in many public works for Jerusalem. For instance, he rebuilds the walls of Jerusalem, extensively campaigns for the refurbishment of the Haram and its monuments, and replaces mosaics on the exterior of the Dome with Syrian tiles. His efforts parallel those of Mecca and Medina, as he is working to keep Jerusalem as the third greatest city of Islam. Finally, he founds a Shari'a court (court where the law is based on the Qur'an).
Ottoman architecture is characterized by the Damascus Gate (largest gate in Jerusalem leading to the Muslim Quarter), the Jaffa Gate, and St. Stephen's Gate (named after St. Stephen, who was believed to have been stoned at this location). The Western Wall was given to the Jews by Suleiman as a place of prayer. The Western Wall eventually begins to attract myths (that were originally for the Temple). Important to understand, however, is that the Western Wall refers to the wall of the retaining structure that was built around the Temple; it is not a wall of the Temple itself.
At this point, the city is still Islamic, and we see the building of schools, hospices, and hostels where Crusader structures are used as stone quarries. Many madrasas (schools that preach Islam) are founded during this period.
Then from 1351 to 1353, Jerusalem suffers from the Black Death.
Characteristic of Mamluk architecture is the building of walls with alternating red and white stones. As we can see in the Dome of the Rock, entrances are made monumental, and there is extensive use of the Muqarnas design for domes. This is where square bricks are used to make the round dome shape.
More markers of the city's Islam centered nature include the Al Madrasa al Ashrafiyya and the Ghawanima Minaret. The former is a Qur'aniic school, called the "third jewel of Jerusalem" after the Dome of the Rock and the Al Aqsa Mosque. It was built in 1485, by Sultan al Ashrat, who was known for his many other architectural feats. The latter is located in the Northwest corner of the Haram; built in 1298 by Chief Judge Qadi of Jerusalem, it has foundations of an Umayyad minaret and it uses Crusader columns and capitals.
Charitable foundations in Mamluk Jerusalem include mausoleums, schools, public water fountains, and hospices. Burial near the Haram increased in importance from 13th century and onwareds as traditions grew that linked Jerusalem and especially the Haram as the place of Final Judgment.
During the Mamluk period, development of the Haram involved the addition of minarets, a summer pulpit, and the restoration of the Dome and the Al Aqsa Mosque.
Co-occurring at this time is the growth of the Jewish Quarter. Jerusalem is no longer political, but increasingly spiritual. Rabbi Moses ben Nachman makes aliyah in 1267, as he founds the Ramban Synagogue (Jewish Center). He also develops kabbalah, or Jewish Mysticism, where the Temple symbolized the path to God. Rabbi Moses was believed to be one of the first Zionists, who interpreted everything about Judaism through a mystic sense; he is also believed to have had an aggressive refutation of Christians.
After the Mamluk period, came the Ottomon era which lasted from 1516 to 1918. The Ottomans take Constantinople in 1453. Selim I beats the Mamluks in 1517 at Marj Dabik (N. Syria); he is described as the new possessor of the "first qiblah." Jerusalem peacefully surrenders in 1516. With the establishment of the Ottoman empire comes a strong central government.
Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (1520 - 1566) partakes in many public works for Jerusalem. For instance, he rebuilds the walls of Jerusalem, extensively campaigns for the refurbishment of the Haram and its monuments, and replaces mosaics on the exterior of the Dome with Syrian tiles. His efforts parallel those of Mecca and Medina, as he is working to keep Jerusalem as the third greatest city of Islam. Finally, he founds a Shari'a court (court where the law is based on the Qur'an).
Ottoman architecture is characterized by the Damascus Gate (largest gate in Jerusalem leading to the Muslim Quarter), the Jaffa Gate, and St. Stephen's Gate (named after St. Stephen, who was believed to have been stoned at this location). The Western Wall was given to the Jews by Suleiman as a place of prayer. The Western Wall eventually begins to attract myths (that were originally for the Temple). Important to understand, however, is that the Western Wall refers to the wall of the retaining structure that was built around the Temple; it is not a wall of the Temple itself.
Lecture 16: Crusader Jerusalem
The Crusader period last from 1099 to 1291, beginning with the capture of Jerusalem by Godfrey de Bouillon. The crusades can be defined as a Holy War--a battle between Roman Catholic forces against Muslims and other political enemies of the pope. Crusaders took vows and were granted penance for their past sins (these grants were known as "indulgences"). It is generally understood that the crusades were an attempt to recapture Jerusalem from Islam, as they were launched in response to the Westward expansion of Muslim Seljuk Turks in Anatolia (Turkey).
There is much dispute over what caused the Crusades. Politically, the crusades can be seen as a reaction to the expansion of Islam. Or, it can be seen as a call for justice, as Islamic slave trade begins to rise in Southern Europe. Some scholars do not agree with this explanation, for they believe that there are religious reasons for the crusades: they hold the conviction that the conquest of Jerusalem stems as a late reaction to the persecution of the Christians in Jerusalem.From this perspective, Caliph Al-Hakim's destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in 1009 can be seen as a major catalyst in the crusades. Finally, there are many scholars who argue that there is a socioeconomic reasoning behind the crusades, known as the phenomenon of the second and third son. Because, in this time period, the first son received all of the inheritance, the second and third sons may have started the crusade in order to make a name for themselves. However, there is much skepticism regarding this final reason.
Important to note is Pope Urban II's speech, which is believed to have started the first Crusade, which lasted from 1097 to 1099. He uses language such as "vile race" to incite anger, and he promises redemption for those who die in the name of the Lord. The first crusade ends in 1099 with the capture of Jerusalem by Godfrey de Bouillon. Then, his brother, Balwin, becomes the "King of Jerusalem" in 1100.
Muslim unrest after the first crusade ends in the calling of a second crusade, preached by St. Bernard at Vezelay in 1146. St. Bernard describes the Christian soldiers of the second crusade (which mostly composed of French and German Crusaders) as not only righteous in their demeanor, but strong in their military might.
Then, on July 4, 1187, Salah ad-Din (Saladin) routs the Crusaders at Horns of Hattin (Galilee). But, in his siege of Jerusalem, he does not commit mass murder, which is why he becomes a sign of chivalry even in many Christian texts.
Architectural reforms mark the Christian influence during this time period. For instance, the crusaders modify existing Islamic monuments, converting the Dome of the Rock to the Templum Domini and the Al Aqsa Mosque to the Templum Solomonis. Also occurring during this time period is the rebuilding of Byzantine Churches, such as the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, the Church of Ascension (on the summit of the Mount of Olives), the Church of St. Mary (near Gethsemane), and the Church of St. Lazarus (also on the Mount of Olives). From these architectural feats, it is apparent that the Crusaders were expanding Zion from the East Hill (where it was during Judaism and Islam), to the West Hill. More evidence of this fact can be found in the establishment of the Armeninan Quarter in the Southwest region of Jerusalem.
During the Crusades, Jerusalem was divided into four quarters. The Patriarch's Quarter (Northwest) housed the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, the Citadel/Tower of David, and the Muristan (this is where the Hospitallers, French Crusaders, were located). The Templars Quarter, located in the Southeast, was home to the Templum Domini, Templum Solomonis, and Solomon's Stables (this is where the Knights Templar, founded in 1118, were based). The Syrian Quarter, in the Northeast, was established for Christians from Syria after the expulsion of the Jews. And Finally, the Armenian Quarter was located in the Southwest. Note, with the exception of the Armenian Quarter, that the four quarters established at this point are different from modern Jerusalem's four quarters.
A lot of our information for this period comes from Illuminated Manuscripts, such as the Hague Map of Jerusalem (created in 1170). Maps like this one serve as a major source for understanding the city.
Among the Order of the Knights Templar (in Templar's Quarter) and the Hospitallers (in the Patriarch's Quarter), were many other orders, such as the Teutonic Knights (German Hospitallers) from 1128 in the Syrian Quarter and the Order of St. Lazarus in 1120s.
Further modifications of the Haram al Sharif during the Crusader period involve the conversion of the Dome of Ascension (believed to be the place of the ascension of Mohammed) to a bapistry.
A turn in the Crusader period comes in 1187, with the rise of Saladin, who establishes Ayyubid Jerusalem. During his reign, the Haram al Sharif is reconverted back to a Muslim shrine, the Church of the Holy Sepulcher is given to the Greek Orthodox, and Jews are allowed back into the city (Jews from Ashkelon settle in Maghribi's Quarter, which eventually becomes the Jewish Quarter in 1190). However, after Saladin's death, his successors struggle for power, leading to more conflict between the Ayyubids and Crusaders. Rising enmity leads to a third Crusade in 1189-1192, a fourth one in 1199-1204 (led by Innocent III), a fifth one in 1217 - 1221 (in 1219, the walls of Jerusalem are dismantled, people flee for lack of defense, and the population of Jerusalem goes down significantly), and a sixth one in 1228 - 1229 (led by Frederick II, but not blessed by the Pope). After the sixth crusade, the Crusaders regain control of Jerusalem when Al Kamid cedes Jerusalem for ten years in a treaty. Then in 1291, Akko, the last Crusader Outpost falls, marking the end of Crusader Jerusalem.
Thursday, February 24, 2011
Lecture 15: Islamic Jerusalem
The Byzantine Era ended as the Sasarians take over Palestine and Jerusalem from 614 to 628 CE. Important to note is that this is the last pre-Islamic Persian Empire. Under their ruling, the Jews were allowed to resettle in Jerusalem for the first time since the end of the Second Revolt in 135 CE (that ended in their expulsion from the city by Roman Emperor Hadrian). Beginning in 615 CE, are Christian pogroms against the Jews in Jerusalem. Then, in 628 CE, Byzantine Emperor Heraclius retakes Jerusalem from the Sasarians and allows the mass massacres of Jews in Jerusalem.
Following our analysis of the end of Byzantine Jerusalem is a study on the Prophet Muhammad. It is known that he leaves no heir, so caliphs (delegates or representatives) are established to lead the Islamic community. The first three caliphs, Abu Baker (Muhammad's closest friend), Umar (Muhammad's companion), and Uthman, suceeded one after the other without much dispute. The first division of power in Islam is between Ali (Muhammad's son in law) and Mu'awiya (Uthman's cousin). Supporters of Ali wanted a kinship based caliphate, collectively known as the Shi'ites, while supports of Mu'awiya were mostly Arab and collectively known as the Sunnis.
Muslim Caliph Umar (the Second Caliph after Muhammad) takes Jerusalem in 638 CE. In a written agreement with the Christian community, he does not allow Jewish settlement; though, he later allowed Jews to move back into the city. Under Muslim rule, Jerusalem is still referred to as Aelia (from Hadrian). Early Islamic descriptions of the city usually entail "house of the Holy place" or "the Holy," as these inscriptions can be found minted on coins in 832 CE. Also, with the conversion of the city into a Muslim settlement, the Temple Mount was renamed the Haram-al-Sharif, which later became the home of the Dome of the Rock and the Al Aqsa Mosque.
In Islamic traditions, the term qibla refers to the direction of prayer, while mihrab is a niche pointing to the direction of prayer. This is cited in Qur'an 2: 144, where it is said that one must "turn [his/her] face toward the Place of Worship." Initially, this qibla was believed to be Jerusalem (610 - 623 CE), but then was later shifted to the Kaaba in Mecca (around 622 CE).
The Kaaba is a granite cube shaped building in Mecca. It is believed that a black stone in the corner of the building dates back to the times of Adam and Eve. From this, it can be seen that many traditions that were once attributed to Jerusalem and the Temple Mount, started to get transferred to the Kaaba in Mecca, at least under Islamic faith. In fact, for Muslims, the Mecca is the most holy place, followed by the Medina, and finally Jerusalem.
Though the Kaaba is one of the most sacred places for Islamic people, it used to house many Arabian Idols. It was a pagan shrine before Islam, but it is still a very sacred space. It is converted to a sacred space for Muslims when Muhammad throws away the idols and brings about the idea of monotheism (in much the same way as Hezekiah's and Josiah's reforms).
The five pillars of Islam are as follows:
Shahada: "Testimony" or "witness" that there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is is messenger.
Salat: 5 Prayers per day
Zakat: almsgiving to the needy
Sawn: fasting in the month of Ramadan in which the Qu'ran was first revealed
Hajj: making a pilgrimage to the Mecca in one's lifetime
The Umayyad Dynasty in Jerusalem lasted from 638 to 750, though the rulers had their capital in Damascus. During this time, Abd al Malik builds the Dome of the Rock in 691 CE (though it was commissioned in 687 CE). The purpose of the Dome was to divert pilgrimage form Mecca to Jerusalem. Then Al Aqsa Mosque was built on the site of Umar's mosque during Caliph Walid's reign from 705 to 715 CE. Jerusalem during this period was considered to be a very tolerant city of both Christianity and Judaism. Further architectural modifications of the city took the form of Islamic Palaces and Administrative Centers near the Southwest end of the Temple Mount.
Interestingly, the Dome of the Rock, though an Islamic shrine, is actually built with a lot of architectural influence from Christianity, as the builders were prominently Christian. In fact, many architectural aspects of the Dome are comparable to Christian Churches, such as ones in Caesarea, the Holy Sepulcher, and the Kathisma Church. In 1099, the Crusaders converted the Dome to a Church. But, in 1187, Saladin converted the Dome back into a shrine. Inscribed on its walls, read a text claiming their first testimony: that there is no God other than Allah, which conflicts with Christianity and their views of Jesus as God's son.
Traditions often associated with the Dome include: Mt. Moriah, the Rock as the Holy of Holies, i was a stop on Muhammad's Miraj, under it lies the "Well of Souls" or the axis to Hell. Right beside the Dome is the Dome of the Chain, which is a much smaller structure believed to be the place of the Last Judgment.
Finally, we discussed the Al Asqa mosque, and how a prayer here is worth 500 prayers outside of Jerusalem. It is referred to as the "farthest mosque" and it was built above the "Stables of Solomon"
Following our analysis of the end of Byzantine Jerusalem is a study on the Prophet Muhammad. It is known that he leaves no heir, so caliphs (delegates or representatives) are established to lead the Islamic community. The first three caliphs, Abu Baker (Muhammad's closest friend), Umar (Muhammad's companion), and Uthman, suceeded one after the other without much dispute. The first division of power in Islam is between Ali (Muhammad's son in law) and Mu'awiya (Uthman's cousin). Supporters of Ali wanted a kinship based caliphate, collectively known as the Shi'ites, while supports of Mu'awiya were mostly Arab and collectively known as the Sunnis.
Muslim Caliph Umar (the Second Caliph after Muhammad) takes Jerusalem in 638 CE. In a written agreement with the Christian community, he does not allow Jewish settlement; though, he later allowed Jews to move back into the city. Under Muslim rule, Jerusalem is still referred to as Aelia (from Hadrian). Early Islamic descriptions of the city usually entail "house of the Holy place" or "the Holy," as these inscriptions can be found minted on coins in 832 CE. Also, with the conversion of the city into a Muslim settlement, the Temple Mount was renamed the Haram-al-Sharif, which later became the home of the Dome of the Rock and the Al Aqsa Mosque.
In Islamic traditions, the term qibla refers to the direction of prayer, while mihrab is a niche pointing to the direction of prayer. This is cited in Qur'an 2: 144, where it is said that one must "turn [his/her] face toward the Place of Worship." Initially, this qibla was believed to be Jerusalem (610 - 623 CE), but then was later shifted to the Kaaba in Mecca (around 622 CE).
The Kaaba is a granite cube shaped building in Mecca. It is believed that a black stone in the corner of the building dates back to the times of Adam and Eve. From this, it can be seen that many traditions that were once attributed to Jerusalem and the Temple Mount, started to get transferred to the Kaaba in Mecca, at least under Islamic faith. In fact, for Muslims, the Mecca is the most holy place, followed by the Medina, and finally Jerusalem.
Though the Kaaba is one of the most sacred places for Islamic people, it used to house many Arabian Idols. It was a pagan shrine before Islam, but it is still a very sacred space. It is converted to a sacred space for Muslims when Muhammad throws away the idols and brings about the idea of monotheism (in much the same way as Hezekiah's and Josiah's reforms).
The five pillars of Islam are as follows:
Shahada: "Testimony" or "witness" that there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is is messenger.
Salat: 5 Prayers per day
Zakat: almsgiving to the needy
Sawn: fasting in the month of Ramadan in which the Qu'ran was first revealed
Hajj: making a pilgrimage to the Mecca in one's lifetime
The Umayyad Dynasty in Jerusalem lasted from 638 to 750, though the rulers had their capital in Damascus. During this time, Abd al Malik builds the Dome of the Rock in 691 CE (though it was commissioned in 687 CE). The purpose of the Dome was to divert pilgrimage form Mecca to Jerusalem. Then Al Aqsa Mosque was built on the site of Umar's mosque during Caliph Walid's reign from 705 to 715 CE. Jerusalem during this period was considered to be a very tolerant city of both Christianity and Judaism. Further architectural modifications of the city took the form of Islamic Palaces and Administrative Centers near the Southwest end of the Temple Mount.
Interestingly, the Dome of the Rock, though an Islamic shrine, is actually built with a lot of architectural influence from Christianity, as the builders were prominently Christian. In fact, many architectural aspects of the Dome are comparable to Christian Churches, such as ones in Caesarea, the Holy Sepulcher, and the Kathisma Church. In 1099, the Crusaders converted the Dome to a Church. But, in 1187, Saladin converted the Dome back into a shrine. Inscribed on its walls, read a text claiming their first testimony: that there is no God other than Allah, which conflicts with Christianity and their views of Jesus as God's son.
Traditions often associated with the Dome include: Mt. Moriah, the Rock as the Holy of Holies, i was a stop on Muhammad's Miraj, under it lies the "Well of Souls" or the axis to Hell. Right beside the Dome is the Dome of the Chain, which is a much smaller structure believed to be the place of the Last Judgment.
Finally, we discussed the Al Asqa mosque, and how a prayer here is worth 500 prayers outside of Jerusalem. It is referred to as the "farthest mosque" and it was built above the "Stables of Solomon"
Tuesday, February 22, 2011
Lecture 14: Byzantine Jerusalem
This is the period where Jerusalem is no longer Jewish, as the state transitions to a nation based on Christianity. Accompanying this transition is the rise of new sites and locations that are deemed more important than the Temple Mount. The Byzantine era lasts from 312 to 637 CE, and as just mentioned, it is marked by the rise of Christianity, where Jerusalem assumes a more spiritual role. Jesus predicts the destruction of the Temple in Mark 13 and Luke 21, thereby making the physical existence of the Temple less important than the personal embodiment of faith.
Events of the Early Church began with Jesus' Ascension from the Mount of Olives sin Acts 1, followed by the Descending of the Holy Spirit in Acts 2 (bringing the idea of God's presence in every believer). Then the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15 debates kosher rules, and whether Christianity should follow Judaism in their sacrificial rituals and whether they need circumcision. Jerusalem is further spiritualized in these contexts, as is quoted in John 4.
There is much scholarly debate over whether the New Testament Apocalypses about Jerusalem--namely the predictions of the Temple's destruction by Jesus--is actually a prediction, or a hindsight that was later attributed to Jesus.
In either case, Jerusalem's sanctity is found in the belief that Jesus died, as buried, and then resurrected in the city, despite the fact that Christianity is constantly spiritualized away from physical entities.
Events of the Byzantine era date back to 285 CE, when Emperor Diocletian spites the administration of the Roman empire between the West and the East. He institutes a tetrarchy between himself, Caesar Maximian, Caesar Constantius, and Caesar Galerius. This causes a struggle for power between the rulers after Constantius' death; the struggle allows Constantine to usurp power, letting him rise as a sole leader.
Constantine rules from 312 5o 337 CE, and he is most known for legalizing Christianity in 313 under the Edict of Milan. He believed that he could unify the kingdom through Christianity, beginning his conquest under the name of Christ. From this, he inadvertently or intentionally politicizes Christianity to an extent. In 324 CE, he holds the Council of Nicaea to establish exactly what it means to be an orthodox Christian. in 330 CE, he establishes his capital in the Bosphorus Straight, and names it after himself, Constantinople. There is current debate over whether Constantine "used" Christianity for political or religious goals.
Meanwhile, Constantine's mother, Helena makes the first Christian Pilgrimage to Jerusalem, dedicates the Church of Nativity in Bethlehem and the Church of the Ascension on the Mount of Olives. She then rededicates the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (Chapel of Helena 330 CE). This location, believed to be the burial grounds of Jesus, assumes a role as the new Axis Mundi, marking the Christian influence in Jerusalem, as opposed to the Temple Mount in the Jewish era.
After Constantine, Julian "the Apostate" undoes many of his predecessors reforms and attempts to rebuild the Temple. He does not succeed, however, and his successor, Theodosius names Christianity as the official state religion. During this time, the Nea (New) Church is built in honor of St. Mary, along with the Church of Holy Zion.
Important to note is that descriptions of the Nea Church closely reflect those of Solomon's Temple: two pillars, made of cedar. Also, following these architectural commemorations is the movement of Bible legends from the Temple Mount to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (i.e., The Binding of Isaac, The tomb as "theophany," and the location of Adam's burial).
Finally, the Madaba Map, a mosaic map of the sixth century depicts the Christian presence in Jerusalem, as the Temple Mount is no longer in the center of Jerusalem; instead, the most important feature according to this map, is the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.
Events of the Early Church began with Jesus' Ascension from the Mount of Olives sin Acts 1, followed by the Descending of the Holy Spirit in Acts 2 (bringing the idea of God's presence in every believer). Then the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15 debates kosher rules, and whether Christianity should follow Judaism in their sacrificial rituals and whether they need circumcision. Jerusalem is further spiritualized in these contexts, as is quoted in John 4.
There is much scholarly debate over whether the New Testament Apocalypses about Jerusalem--namely the predictions of the Temple's destruction by Jesus--is actually a prediction, or a hindsight that was later attributed to Jesus.
In either case, Jerusalem's sanctity is found in the belief that Jesus died, as buried, and then resurrected in the city, despite the fact that Christianity is constantly spiritualized away from physical entities.
Events of the Byzantine era date back to 285 CE, when Emperor Diocletian spites the administration of the Roman empire between the West and the East. He institutes a tetrarchy between himself, Caesar Maximian, Caesar Constantius, and Caesar Galerius. This causes a struggle for power between the rulers after Constantius' death; the struggle allows Constantine to usurp power, letting him rise as a sole leader.
Constantine rules from 312 5o 337 CE, and he is most known for legalizing Christianity in 313 under the Edict of Milan. He believed that he could unify the kingdom through Christianity, beginning his conquest under the name of Christ. From this, he inadvertently or intentionally politicizes Christianity to an extent. In 324 CE, he holds the Council of Nicaea to establish exactly what it means to be an orthodox Christian. in 330 CE, he establishes his capital in the Bosphorus Straight, and names it after himself, Constantinople. There is current debate over whether Constantine "used" Christianity for political or religious goals.
Meanwhile, Constantine's mother, Helena makes the first Christian Pilgrimage to Jerusalem, dedicates the Church of Nativity in Bethlehem and the Church of the Ascension on the Mount of Olives. She then rededicates the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (Chapel of Helena 330 CE). This location, believed to be the burial grounds of Jesus, assumes a role as the new Axis Mundi, marking the Christian influence in Jerusalem, as opposed to the Temple Mount in the Jewish era.
After Constantine, Julian "the Apostate" undoes many of his predecessors reforms and attempts to rebuild the Temple. He does not succeed, however, and his successor, Theodosius names Christianity as the official state religion. During this time, the Nea (New) Church is built in honor of St. Mary, along with the Church of Holy Zion.
Important to note is that descriptions of the Nea Church closely reflect those of Solomon's Temple: two pillars, made of cedar. Also, following these architectural commemorations is the movement of Bible legends from the Temple Mount to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (i.e., The Binding of Isaac, The tomb as "theophany," and the location of Adam's burial).
Finally, the Madaba Map, a mosaic map of the sixth century depicts the Christian presence in Jerusalem, as the Temple Mount is no longer in the center of Jerusalem; instead, the most important feature according to this map, is the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.
Thursday, February 17, 2011
Lecture 13: Jerusalem in Revolt
As discussed in the previous lecture, Roman rule in Jerusalem began in 63 BCE with General Pompey. During this era, there are two notable Jewish revolts. The first of which, known as the "Great Revolt" lasted from 66 to 73 CE. The second revolt, called the "Bar-Kokhba Revolt," lasted form 132 to 135 CE, and was led by a man named Simon Bar-Kokhba.
Sources for the first revolt come from works (like the Antiquities of the Jews) written by a man named Flavius Josephus. Originally a general in Jerusalem, he chooses to change sides, as he writes mostly in a pro-Roman perspective. From his telling, the revolts resulted from zealots, religious infidelity, among other reasons in an effort to take the blame away from Rome. Another source comes from a man named Tacitus who explains the revolts as rising form messianism and from an inept administration. Archaeological sources back some of the claims made by both of these historians.
After Herod's death, his kingdom is divided among 3 sons, whose powers were more limited. The first, Archelaus, was ethnarch of Judea. he was ineffective, recalled to Rome, and sent into exile in 6 CE. The second, Herod Antipas, became tetrarch from 4 BC until his exile in 39 CE. He inherited Perea, Galilee, and the Transjordan area. The final son, Herod Philip, was tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis, which are Northwest of the Sea of Galilee. He ruled form 4 BCE until his death in 34CE. He was able to build a temple to Augustus because the land he ruled over was very far from Jerusalem.
These Herodian rulers, however, were ineffective and therefore, they were replaced by Roman procurators, establishing direct Roman Rule in Israel.
Of these procurators, the most notable was Pontius Pilate, as he presided over the trial of Jesus and ordered his execution. He was governor form 26-36/7 CE, and not only was he ineffective, but he also provoked the Jews, with pagan symbols on his coins. From the time period 6-66 CE, Roman governors were very inexperienced. Coupled with Jewish nationalism and the advent of messianism and apocalyptic mindsets, internal conflicts were on the rise, eventually leading to open revolt in 66 CE.
Marking the first revolt in Jerusalem are coins that mark Jerusalem's independence from Rome, with inscriptions stating, "for the Freedom of Zion." Establishing their own currency was a way to use propaganda to fuel the revolt. However, in 67 CE, Roman General Vespasian is appointed to conquer Galilee, and in the following years, Nero dies, proclaiming Vespasian as Emperor of Rome in 70 CE. Then, Vespasian's son, Titus, takes over in the spring of 70CE. Then on the 9th of Ab, the same day as the destruction of the first Temple, Titus destroys the Second Temple. Then in 73 CE, the Masada holdouts (hiding in Herod's palace at Masada) commit suicide as the Roman troops begin marching up to the mountain.
Meanwhile, the Temple remains in ruins, until Hadrian converts it to a Temple dedicated to Jupiter in 135 CE. With the destruction of the second Temple, the Jews must revisit the cognitive dissonance felt after the destruction of the first Temple. As punishment, Vespasian issued a fiscus iudaicus, a special tax for Jews only. This gives a fiscal incentive to refuse Judaism. However, the destruction of the Temple started a transformation where the religion became more spiritual. Archaeological evidence that proves the account of the first revolt can be found in the Arch of Titus in Rome (where he commemorates his victory over Jerusalem), and in the Judea Capta Coins that were issued after the city's defeat.
Unlike the first revolt, there are not many sources for the second revolt. It was led by a man named Simon Bar-Kokhba, who attempted to embrace the role of an apocalyptic messiah who will deliver his people. In his endeavor to "liberate Jerusalem," he refers to himself as the "prince" (NSY), since he cannot call himself "King" or "Priest" as he is of neither line. Archaeological evidence found for the second revolt includes the Bar-Kokhba Revolt Coins, where it can be seen that he tries to mint coins similar to the ones found in the first revolt. However, as he mostly likely couldn't speak Hebrew fluently, there are many mistakes on these coins, and many of them are "overstrikes" (he took Roman coins and minted over them, so he didn't have to purchase his own silver). Depicted on these coins, was the second Temple; he uses this iconography in order to instigate passion within his followers, referring to the times when Jerusalem was independent.
However, the second revolt ended in bloody massacres, as Hadrian (Emperor of Rome) rebuilds Jerusalem as a Roman city, Aelia Capitolina, with a Temple dedicated to Jupiter. As a final punishment, he bans the Jews from the city. Survivors of this revolt are believed to lead two major sects known today as modern Judaism and Christianity.
It is commonly believed that the destruction of the city and the Temple marked the beginning of synagogues, where worship can occur outside of the Temple. An idea which contrasts completely with Hezekiah and Josiah's religious reforms.
Sources for the first revolt come from works (like the Antiquities of the Jews) written by a man named Flavius Josephus. Originally a general in Jerusalem, he chooses to change sides, as he writes mostly in a pro-Roman perspective. From his telling, the revolts resulted from zealots, religious infidelity, among other reasons in an effort to take the blame away from Rome. Another source comes from a man named Tacitus who explains the revolts as rising form messianism and from an inept administration. Archaeological sources back some of the claims made by both of these historians.
After Herod's death, his kingdom is divided among 3 sons, whose powers were more limited. The first, Archelaus, was ethnarch of Judea. he was ineffective, recalled to Rome, and sent into exile in 6 CE. The second, Herod Antipas, became tetrarch from 4 BC until his exile in 39 CE. He inherited Perea, Galilee, and the Transjordan area. The final son, Herod Philip, was tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis, which are Northwest of the Sea of Galilee. He ruled form 4 BCE until his death in 34CE. He was able to build a temple to Augustus because the land he ruled over was very far from Jerusalem.
These Herodian rulers, however, were ineffective and therefore, they were replaced by Roman procurators, establishing direct Roman Rule in Israel.
Of these procurators, the most notable was Pontius Pilate, as he presided over the trial of Jesus and ordered his execution. He was governor form 26-36/7 CE, and not only was he ineffective, but he also provoked the Jews, with pagan symbols on his coins. From the time period 6-66 CE, Roman governors were very inexperienced. Coupled with Jewish nationalism and the advent of messianism and apocalyptic mindsets, internal conflicts were on the rise, eventually leading to open revolt in 66 CE.
Marking the first revolt in Jerusalem are coins that mark Jerusalem's independence from Rome, with inscriptions stating, "for the Freedom of Zion." Establishing their own currency was a way to use propaganda to fuel the revolt. However, in 67 CE, Roman General Vespasian is appointed to conquer Galilee, and in the following years, Nero dies, proclaiming Vespasian as Emperor of Rome in 70 CE. Then, Vespasian's son, Titus, takes over in the spring of 70CE. Then on the 9th of Ab, the same day as the destruction of the first Temple, Titus destroys the Second Temple. Then in 73 CE, the Masada holdouts (hiding in Herod's palace at Masada) commit suicide as the Roman troops begin marching up to the mountain.
Meanwhile, the Temple remains in ruins, until Hadrian converts it to a Temple dedicated to Jupiter in 135 CE. With the destruction of the second Temple, the Jews must revisit the cognitive dissonance felt after the destruction of the first Temple. As punishment, Vespasian issued a fiscus iudaicus, a special tax for Jews only. This gives a fiscal incentive to refuse Judaism. However, the destruction of the Temple started a transformation where the religion became more spiritual. Archaeological evidence that proves the account of the first revolt can be found in the Arch of Titus in Rome (where he commemorates his victory over Jerusalem), and in the Judea Capta Coins that were issued after the city's defeat.
Unlike the first revolt, there are not many sources for the second revolt. It was led by a man named Simon Bar-Kokhba, who attempted to embrace the role of an apocalyptic messiah who will deliver his people. In his endeavor to "liberate Jerusalem," he refers to himself as the "prince" (NSY), since he cannot call himself "King" or "Priest" as he is of neither line. Archaeological evidence found for the second revolt includes the Bar-Kokhba Revolt Coins, where it can be seen that he tries to mint coins similar to the ones found in the first revolt. However, as he mostly likely couldn't speak Hebrew fluently, there are many mistakes on these coins, and many of them are "overstrikes" (he took Roman coins and minted over them, so he didn't have to purchase his own silver). Depicted on these coins, was the second Temple; he uses this iconography in order to instigate passion within his followers, referring to the times when Jerusalem was independent.
However, the second revolt ended in bloody massacres, as Hadrian (Emperor of Rome) rebuilds Jerusalem as a Roman city, Aelia Capitolina, with a Temple dedicated to Jupiter. As a final punishment, he bans the Jews from the city. Survivors of this revolt are believed to lead two major sects known today as modern Judaism and Christianity.
It is commonly believed that the destruction of the city and the Temple marked the beginning of synagogues, where worship can occur outside of the Temple. An idea which contrasts completely with Hezekiah and Josiah's religious reforms.
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